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AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES

THE LANGUAGES AND CUSTOMS OF SEVERAL TRIBES OP ABORIGINES
IN THE WESTERN DISTRICT OF VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

JAMES DAWSON

GEORGE ROBERTSON
MELBOURNE, SYDNEY, AND ADELAIDE

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PEXHTBD BT WALKBBy MAT, AND OO.y

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PEEFACE.

A NUMBER of years ago there appeared in the columns of the Attstralasiom
newspaper a short account of the language of one of the native tribes of the
Western District of Victoria, written by my daughter, whose long residence
in the Port Fairy district, and intimate acquaintance from infancy with the
aboriginal inhabitants of that part of the colony, and with their dialects, induced
her to publish that sketch. Some time afterwards our attention was directed
to the formation of a vocabulary of dialects spoken by aboriginal natives of
Australia, and a request was made that she 'would assist in collecting and
illustrating all connected with their history, habits, customs, and languages.'
In undertaking so interesting a work, our intention was to publish the
additional information in the columns of the Australcman ; but, finding it
to be too voluminous for that journal, it was i*esolved to present it to the public
in its present shape.

Great care has been taken in this work not to state anything on the
word of a white person ; and, in obtaining information from the aborigines,
suggestive or leading questions have been avoided as much as possible. The
natives, in their anxiety to please, are apt to coincide with the questioner, and
thus assist him in arriving at wrong conclusions; hence it is of the utmost
importimce to be able to converse freely with them in their own language.
This inspires them with confidence, and prompts them to state facts, and to
discard ideas and beliefs obtained from the white people, which in many
instances have led to misrepresentations. All the information contained in this
book has been obtained from the united testimony of several very intelligent
aborigmes, and every word was approved of by them before being written down.
While co-operatmg in this arduous task, which they thoroughly comprehended,
our sable Mends showed the utmost anxiety to impart informaticm, and the most
BCttiimlotis bemesty in ccmveying a correct version of their own language, as iv«n

293520

PREFACE.

as of the languages of the neighbouring tribes ; and so proud and jealous were
they of the honour, that, by agreement among themselves, each was allotted a fair
proportion of questions to answer and of words to translate ; and if levity was
shown by any individual present who could not always resist a pun on the word
in question, the sedate old chief, Kaawim Kuunawam, at once reproved the wag,
and restored order and attention to the business on hand.

During this tedious process, occupying several years in its accomplishment,
I found my previous good opinion of the natives fell far short of their merits.
Their general information and knowledge of several distinct dialects — in some
instances four, besides fair English — gratified as well as surprised me, and
naturally suggested a comparison between them and the lower classes of white
men. Indeed, it is very questionable if even those who belong to what is called
the middle class, notwithstanding their advantages of education, know as much
of their own laws, of natural history, and of the nomenclature of the heavenly
bodies, as the aborigines do of their laws and of natural objects.

In recording my admiration of the general character of the aborigines, no
attempt is made to palliate what may appear to us to be objectionable customs
common to savagas in nearly every part of the globe ; but it may be truly said
of them, that, with the exception of the low estimate they naturally place on
life, their moral character and modesty — all things considered — compare favourably
with those of the most highly cultivated communities of Europe. People seeing
only the miserable remnants to be met with about the white man*s grog-shop
may be inclined to doubt this ; but if these doubters were to be brought into
close communication with the aborigines away from the means of intoxication*
and were to listen to their guileless conversation, their humour and wit, and
their expressions of honour and affection for one another, those who are disposed
to look upon them as scarcely human would be compelled to admit that in
general intelligence, common sense, integrity, and the absence of anything
repulsive in their conduct, they are at least equal, if not superior, to the general
run of white men. It must be borne in mind, also, that many of their present
vices were introduced by the white man, whose contact with them has increased
their degradation, and will no doubt ultimately lead to their extinction.

And even, in censuring customs and practices which we may regard as
repugnant to our notions and usages, we should bear in mind that these may
appear right and virtuous from the stand-point of the aborigines, and that they
have received the sanction of use and wont for many ages. If our habits,

PREFACE.

manners, and morals were investigated and commented upon by an intelligent
black, what would be his verdict on them ? What would he think of the ' sin
of great cities/ of baby-farming, of our gambling hells, of our ' marriage market,'
of the universal practice of adulteration, of the frightful revelations made by
Mr. Plimsoirs committee with respect to rotten ships freighted and insured on
purpose to founder, of the white slavery in all great cities, and of the thousand
and one evils incidental to our highly artificial civilization ? Living, as we do,
in a conservatory constructed of such remarkably fragile materials, we should
hesitate before picking up the smallest pebble wherewith to lapidate the despised
blackfellow.

To several friends who have assisted me in various ways in the publication
of this book my thanks are due : to Professor Strong, of the Melbourne
University ; to James Smith, Esq., Melbourne ; to Mr. Goodall, Superintendent
of the Aboriginal Station, Framlingham ; and especially to the Rev. F. R. M.
Wilson, formerly of Camperdown, now of Kew.

To my sable friends who have kindly given us their aid I express my
gratitude for their patience and their anxiety to communicate information ;
especially to the very intelligent chiefess Yaruun Parpur Tarneen, whose
knowledge greatly exceeded expectation ; as also to Wombeet Tuulawam, her
husband, who assisted her. In return for their friendship and confidence, I trust
that this little contribution to the history of an ill-used and interesting people,
fast passing away, may lead to a better estimate of their character, and to a more
kindly treatment at the hands of their * Christian brethren ' than the aborigines
have hitherto received. K so, this volume will attain its chief object, and will
confer intense gratification on their sincere friend,

JAMES DAWSON.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

As it has been found almost impossible to represent the correct sounds of the
Australasian languages by adhering to the rules of English orthography, these
rules have been necessarily laid aside, together with the signs of accentuation.
Double consonants are used to express emphasis, and double vowels to express
prolongation of the sound. People who are unacquainted with the difficulty of
communicating in writing the pronunciation and sound of foreign words may
cavil at the employment of so many double letters, but this mode has been
adopted, after very careful consideration, as the most suitable for the purpose.

The following examples will fully illustrate what is meant. The English
word 'car* would be 'kaar,' 'can' would be 'kann,' 'rain' would be 'nesen,*
'rainy' would be 'rsesenje,' 'meat* would be 'meet,' 'met' would bo *mett,'
'life' would be Miif,' 'live' would be *livv,' 'tome' would be 'toom,' 'tom'
would be ' tomm,' ' boot ' would be ' buut,' ' cut ' would be ' kutt,' ' one ' would be
« wunn,' ' magpie ' would be * magpii,' ' pussy cat ' would be ' puusse katt.' The
k and g which appear before consonants in the syllables of many aboriginal
words represent soimds barely perceptible, yet indLspensible to right pronimciation.
The nasal sound of ' gn ' or ' ng ' often occurs at the beginning of syllables in
the aboriginal languages. As it is found at the beginning of, and only occurs in
words like poignant and poignard, derived from a foreign source, it is somewhat
difficult for English people to pronoimce it. Some sounds which lie beyond the
scope of the English alphabet are represented by the letters which come nearest
to them, so as to give an approximately correct idea of what is intended to be
conveyed.

YARRUUN PARPUR TARNEEN
(VicToinous),

Chi'ft" of the iforp,.,r Tribf.

• •• •
• • •

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER I.

TRIBES.

The country belonging to a tribe is generally dLstinguished by the name or
language of that tribe. The names of tribes are taken from some local object, or
from some peculiarity in the country where they live, or in their pronunciation ;
and when an individual is referred to, ' Kuumdit' — meaning ' member of* — is
afiixed to the tribal name, in the same way as the syllable ' er' is added to
London, 'Londoner,' or 'ite' to Melbourne, ' Melboumite/ Thus the Mount
Rouse tribe is called ' Eolor,' after the aboriginal name of the mountain ; and a
member of the tribe is called ' Kolor kuumdit.' The language of the Kolor
tiibe is called ' Chaap wuurong,' meaning ' soft' or ' broad lip,' in contra-
distinction to other dialects of harder pronunciation. The Kolor tribe and its
language occupy the country commencing near Mount Napier, thence to German-
town, Dunkeld, Wickliffe, Lake Boloke, down the Salt Creek to Hexham, to
Garamut, and to starting point

The Kuum kopan noot tribe is known by the name of its language, ' Kuum
kopan noot,' meaning * small lip,' or ' short pronunciation,' with ' Kuumdit' affixed
for an individual of the tribe, who is called ' Kuum kopan noot kuumdit.' Its
territory, commencing in the middle of the Tarrone swamp, * Yaluuk,' extends to
Dunmore House dam. Upper Moyne Falls, Buunbatt, Goodwood main cattle camp,
Marramok swamp, and round by South Green Hills station to starting point.

The Hopkins tribe is called after its language, * Pirt kopan noot,' an<l a
member of the tribe * Pirt piii; wuurong kuumdit ;' and its language, which is
very slightly different from tlie * Chaap wuurong,' is called * Piii; kopan noot,'
meaning 'jump lip.' Its countiy Is bounded by Wickliffe, Lake Boloke, Salt
Creek, Hopkins Hill, Ararat, and Mount William.

The Spring Creek tribe is called * Mopor,' and a member of it * Mopor
kuumdit' Its language is called * Kii wuurong,' meaning * Oh, dear ! lip.*
Its countiy, commencing at the swamp Marramok on Minjah station, extends

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

to Woolflthorpe, to Ballangeich, up Muston's Creek to Burrwidgee, ihrough the
centre of Mirraswuto swamp to Qoodwood Hoase, thence to Buunbatt, and to
starting point.

The Port Fairy tribe is called ' Peek whuurong/ and a member of it • Peek
whurrong kuiirndit/ Its language, ' Peek whurrong/ ' kelp lip/ is taken from
the l)road-loafed seaweed so very abundant on the sea shore. Its territory lies
along the sea coast, from the mouth of the Hopkins River to nearly half-way
between Port Fairy and Portland, thence to Dunmore dam, Tarrone swamp,
Kirkstall, Koroit, Woo<lford, Allansford, Framlingham, and down the Hopkins
River to the sea.

The Mount Shad well tribe and its language are called 'Kime wuurong,'
'blood lip/ with Kuurndit afExe<l for a member of the tribe. Its territory
commences at the Hopkins Hill sheepwash on the Hopkins River, and extends to
Mount Fyans, Mount Elephant, Cloven Hills, Minninguurt, Mount Noorat,
Keilambete Lake, Framlingham aboriginal station, and up the east side of the
Hopkins River to starting point.

The Camperdown language is called * Warn talliin,* * rough language.' The
Colao language Is ' Kolak gnat,' ' belonging to sand,' and is hard in pronunciation.
The Cape Otway language is * Katubanuut,' ' King Parrot language.' The country
between Cape Otway and the Hopkins River is called * Yarro waeteh,' * Forest
country,' and the language ' Wirngill gnatt tallinanong/ ' Bear language.'

At the annual great meetings of the associated tribes, where sometimes
twenty tribas assembled, there were usually four languages spoken, so distinct
from one another that the young people speaking one of them could not
understand a word of the other thi*ee; and even the middle-aged people had
difficulty in ascertaining what was said. Thase were the Chaap wuurong, Kuurn
kopan noot, Wiitya whuurong, and Kolac gnat. The other tongues spoken at the
meeting might be tenned dialects of these four languagas.

Tlio aborigines have a very ready way of distinguishing the ten dialects
enumerated above, by the various temis which are employed by each to denote the
pronoun ' you/ as Qnuutok, Qnuundook, Winna, Qnse, Gnii, &;c. The differences
of language arc also markeil by peculiarities of pronunciation, especially by the
way in which the end of a sentence is intoned. Natives of Great Britain will
remoml)er similar differences between the various counties or towns of their
fatherland, which will serve to illustitite the differences of aboriginal
pronunciation.

CHAPTER 11.

POPULATION.

In attempting to ascertain the numbers of individuals in the different tribes, it
has been found almost impossible to make the aborigines comprehend or compute
very large numbei's, or even to obtain, from the very few now alive, an
approximate estimate of the aggregate strength of the tribes of the Western
district previous to the occupation of the country by the white man. It has
been found necessary to ascertain from some of the most intelligent middle-aged
persons among them, first, the number of friendly tribes which met annually in
midsummer for hunting, feasting, and amusements, — occasions of all othera the
most likely to di-aw together the largest gatherings, — and then the average
strength of each tribe.

These great meetings were held at Mirraewuae, a large marsh celebrated
for emus and other kinds of game, not many miles to the west of Caramut.
This place was selected on account of its being a central position for the meetings
of the tribes occupying the districts now known as the Wannon, Hamilton,
Dunkeld, Mount William, Mount Bouse, Mount Napier, Lake Condah, Dunmore,
Tarrone, Kangatong, Spring Creek, Framlingham, Lake Boloke, Skipton, Flat-
topped Hill, Mount Shadwell, Darlington, Mount Noorat, Camperdown, Wardy
Yallock, and Mount Elephant. None of the sea coast tribes attended the
meetings at Mirnewuaa, as they were afraid of treachery and of an attack on the
part of the others. According to the testimony of the intelligent old chief
Weeratt Kuyuut, and his equally intelligent daughter Yarruum Parpurr
Tarmeen, and her husband, Wombeet Tuulawam, when two of these tribes
fought a pitched battle, each mustered at least thirty men ; and for every able-
bodied warrior present (and no one durst absent himself on such an occasion
under the penalty of death) there would be at least three members absent, as the
old men, women, children and invalids were kept at home ; thus making an
average of one hundred and twenty in each tribe ; and, as the twenty-one tribes
enumerated were generally present, thei-e must occasionally have been the large
gathering of two thousand five hundred and twenty aborigines.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

In the estimation of some of the earliest settlers, this calculation of the
average strength of each tribe is too low ; but, as they could not tell how many
tribes or portions of tribes were seen by them at one time, the statements of the
natives who attended these great meetings, and of those who remember the
accounts given of them by their parents, are the most reliable.

On questioning old Weeratt Kuyuut — ^who was privileged as a messenger to
travel among the tribes between the rivers Leigh and Glenelg — about the
population of the Great Plains, which have Mount Elephant as a centre, he said
the natives were like flocks of sheep and beyond counting.

At this date, July, 1880, there are only seven aborigines who speak the
Chaap wuurong language, three who speak the Kuum kopan noot language, and
four who speak the Peek whuurong language.

CHIEFS.

CHAPTER III.

CHIEFS.

Evert tribe has its chief, who is looked upon in the light of a father, and whose
authority is supreme. He consults with the best men of the tribe, but when he
announces his decision, they dare not contradict or disobey him.

Great respect is paid to the chiefs and their wives and families. They can
command the sei-vices of everyone belonging to their tribe. As many as six
yoimg bachelors are obliged to wait on a chief, and eight young unmarried
women on his wife ; and, as the children are of superior rank to the common
people, they also have a number of attendants to wait on them. No one can
address a chief or chiefess without being first spoken to, and then only by their
titles as such, and not by personal names, or disrespectfully. Food and water,
when brought to the camp, must be offered to them first, and reeds provided for
each in the family to drink with ; while the common people drink in the usual
way. Should they fancy any article of dress, opossum rug, or weapon, it must
be given without a murmur.

If a chief leaves home for a short time he is always accompanied by a friend,
and on his return is met by two men, who conduct him to his wuum. At his
approach every one rises to receive him, and remains silent till he speaks ; they
then inquire where he has been, and converse with him freely. When a tribe is
moving from one part of the country to another, the chief, accompanied by a
friend, precedes it, and obtains permission from the next chief to pass, before
his followers cross the boundary. When approaching a friendly camp, the chief
walks at the head of his tribe. If he is too old and infirm to take the lead, his
nearest male relative or best friend does so. On his arrival with his family at
the friendly camp, a comfortable wuum is immediately erected, and food,
firewood, and attendance are provided during his visit. When he goes out to
hunt, he and his friends are accompanied by several men to carry their game and
protect them from enemies. A strange chief approaching a camp is met at a
short distance by the chief, and invited to come and sit down ; a fire is made for
him, and then he is asked where he has come from, and what is his business.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

The succession to the chiefdom is by inheritance. When a chief dies the
chiefs of the neighbouring tribes, accompanied by their attendants, assist at the
funeral obsequies ; and they appoint the best male fiiend of the deceased to
take charge of the tribe until the first great meeting after the expiry of one year,
when the succession must be deteimined by the votes of the assembled chiefs
alone. The eldest son is appointed, unless there is some good reason for setting
him aside. If there are no sons, the deceased chiefs eldest brother is entitled to
succeed him, and the inheritance runs in the line of his family. Failing him,
the inheritance devolves upon the other brothers and their families in succession.

If the heir is weakly in body, or mentaUy unfitted to maintain the position
of chief, — which requires to be filled by a man of ability and bi-avery, — and if he
has a brother who is more eligible in the opinion of the tribe, or who aspii-es to
the dignity, the elder brother must either yield or fight the younger brother in
single combat, at the first great meeting, for the supi*emacy.

There is an impression among the aborigines that the second son of a chief is
generally superior to his elder brother ; and, if proved to be so in fight, the latter
gives up his claim as a matter of custom, and the tribe accepts the conqueror as
its head.

Should the heir be a boy, his nearest male relative is appointed regent
till he is initiated into manhood. If there is no heir, the chiefs of the
neighbouring tribes elect a successor from the deceased chief's tribe ; but if their
votes are divided between two candidates, the matter must be decided by these in
single combat, which sometimes leads to the whole tribe quarrelling and fighting.
As the tribe, however, cannot be divided, the result of the combat is accepted, and
all are again friends.

PROPERTY.

CHAPTER IV.

PROPERTY.

The territory belonging to a tribe is divided among its members. Each family
has the exclusive right by inheritance to a part of the tribal lands, which is named
after its owner ; and his family and every child bom on it must be named after
something on the property. When the boundaries with neighbours meet at lakes
or swamps celebrated for game, well-defined portions of these are marked out
and any poaching or trespassing is sevei-ely punished. No individual of any
neighbouring tribe or family can hunt or walk over the property of another
without permission from the head of the family owning the land. A sti-anger
found trespassing can legally be put to death.

When the father of a family dies, his landed property is divided equally
among his widow and his children of both sexes. Should a child of another
family have been bom on the estate, it is looked upon as one of the family, and
it has an equal right with them to a share of the land, if it has attained the age
of six months at the death of the proprietor. This adopted child is called a
'woork', and calls the owner of the property by the same name. Should a family
die out without leaving * flesh relatives* of any degree, the chief divides the land
among the contiguous families after the lapse of one year from the death of the
last survivor. During that period the name of the property, being the same as
the name of its last owner, is never mentioned, but is called ' Yaamp yaamp' in
the Ohaap wuurong and the other two languages. If, however, there are
several claimants, with equal rights to the territorj', the chief at once gives
each an equal share, irrespective of sex or age. To those who are under age
he appoints guardians to look after their property during their minority.

8 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER V.

CLOTHmO.

The aborigines are very fond of anointing their bodies and their hair with the
fat of animals, and toasting themselves before the fire till their skin absorbs it.
In order to protect their bodies from the cold, they mix red clay with the oily fat
of emus, — which is considered the best, — or with that of water fowls, opossums,
grubs, or toasted eel skins, and rub themselves all over with the mixture. Owing
to this custom very little clothing is necessary.

During all seasons of the year both sexes walk about very scantily clothed.
In warm weather the men wear no covering during the day time except a short
apron, not unlike the sporran of the Scotch Highlanders, formed of strips of
opossum skins with the fur on, hanging from a skin belt in two bunches, one in
front and the other behind. In winter they add a large kangaroo skin, fur side
inwards, which hangs over the shoulders and down the back like a mantle or
short cloak. This skin is fastened round the neck by the hind legs, and is fixed
with a pin made of the small bone of the hind leg of a kangaroo, ground to a fine
point. Sometimes a small rug made of a dozen skins of the opossum or young
kangaroo is worn in the same way.

Women use the opossum iiig at all times, by day as a covering for the back
and shoulders, and in cold nights as a blanket. When they are obliged to go out
of doors in wet weather, a kangaroo skin is substituted for the rug. A girdle or
short kilt of the neck feathers of the emu, tied in little bunches to a skin cord,
is fastened round the loins. A band of plaited bark surrounds the head, and
pointed pins, made of wood or of the small bones of the hind foot of the
kangaroo, are stuck upright at each side of the brow, to keep up the hair, which
is divided in front and laid over them.

Beds are made of dry grass laid on the ground ; and in summer the body is
covered with a thin grass mat, or a sprinkling of loose dry gi-ass, but in cold
weather a wallaby or opossum rug is used in addition. In rare instances the rug
is made of skins of the ring-tailed opossum.

CLOTHING.

A departure from this primitive mode of covering, and the adoption of the
white man's costume, have weakened the constitution of the aborigines, and
rendered them very liable .to colds and pulmonary diseases, more particularly
as — though they overload themselves with European clothes during the daytime
— they seldom sleep under their rugs, excepting in the cold season of the year.

Fur rugs were very scarce and valuable before the white man destroyed the
wild dogs, the natural enemies of the opossum and kangaroo, as it took a year to
collect opossum skins sufficient to make one. The ring-tailed opossums were
more plentiful than the common kind, but the skins were less esteemed. Bugs
were also made of the skins of the wallaby and of the brush kangaroo, which
are likewise inferior to the common opossum. A good rug is made of from fifty
to seventy skins, which are stripped off the opossum, pegged out square or
oblong on a sheet of bark, and dried before the fire, then trimmed with a reed
knife, and sewn together with the tail sinews of the kangaroo, which are always
pulled out of the tail, and carefully dried and saved for thread Previous to
sewing the skins together, diagonal lines, about half-an-inch apart, are scratched
across the fiesh side of each with sharpened mussel shells. This is done to make
them soft and pliable. The only addition to this kind of ornamentation is
occasionally the figure of an emu in the centre skin of the rug. It may be stated
that, although many of the opossum rugs of the aborigines are now ornamented
with a variety of designs, some of which are coloured, nothing but the simple
pattern previously described, with the occasional figure of an emu, was used
before the arrival of the white man. The figures of human beings, animals, and
things, now drawn by the natives, and represented in works on the aborigines of
the colony of Victoria as original, were unknown to the tribes treated of, and are
considered by them as of recent introduction by Europeans.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER VI.

HABITATIONS.

Habitations — wxiurns — are of various kinds, and are constructed to suit the
seasons. The principal one is the permanent family dwelling, which is made of
strong limbs of trees stuck up in dome-shape, high enough to allow a tall man to
stand upright underneath them. Small limbs fill up the intermediate spaces,
and these are covered with sheets of bark, thatch, sods, and earth till the roof
and sides are proof against wind and rain. The doorway is low, and generally
faces the morning sun or a sheltering rock. The family wuum is sufficiently
large to accommodate a dozen or more persons ; and when the family is grown up
the wuum is partitioned off into apartments, each facing the fire in the centre,
One of these is appropriated to the parents and children, one to the young
unmarried women and widows, and one to the bachelors and widowers. While
travelling or occupying temporary habitations, each of these parties must erect
separate wuums. When several families live together, each builds its wuum
facing one central fire. This fire is not much used for cooking, which is generally
done outside. Thus in what appears to be one dwelling, fifty or more persons can
be accommodated, when, to use the words of the aborigines, they are ' like bees in
a hive.'

These comfortable and healthy habitations are occupied by the owners
of the land in the neighbourhood, and are situated on dry spots on the bank of a
lake, stream, or healthy swamp, but never near a malarious morass, nor under
lai-ge trees, which might fall or be struck down by lightning. When it is
necessary to abandon them for a season in search of variety of food, or for
visiting neighbouring families and tribes, the doorway is closed with sheets of
bark or bushes, and, for the information of visitors, a crooked stick is placed
above it pointing in the direction which the family intends to go. They then
depart, with the remark, ' Muurtee bunna meen,' — ' close the door and pull away.'

Temporary habitations are also dome-shaped, and are made of limbs, bark of
gum trees, and grass, scarcely rain-proof, and are smaller, opener, and more carelessly
erected than the permanent residences. They are only used in summer or for

HABITATIONS.

shelter while travelling, and have a large open side, with the fire in front. In
fine warm weather, a few gi'een bushes, placed in a half cii*cle to windward of the
fire, suflice for a temporary dwelling.

The men share the labour of making the permanent dwelling, but the
women are compelled to erect the smaller ones. Small weapons and personal
property are taken inside the habitations; but as it would be inconvenient to have
long spears there, they are stuck on end at each side of the doorway, to bo at
hand and ready for an attack.

In some parts of the country where it is easier to get stones than wood and
bark for dwellings, the walls are built of flat stones, and roofed with limbs and
thatciL A stony point of land on the south side of a lake near Camperdown is
called ' karm karm,' which means ' building of stones,' but no marks or remains
are now to be seen indicating the fonner existence of a building there.

These permanent residences being proof against all kinds of weather, from
excessive heat in sunimer to fix>st in winter, suit the constitutions of the
aborigines very much better than the wooden cottages used at the (Government
aboriginal stations. In cold weather a fire is kept burning day and night in the
centre of the floor ; and, the habitations being easily heated, a very small one
suflSces. To keep up a moderate, steady temperature, the ends only of the
sticks meet in the centre of tlie fii-e, and, as they bum slowly away, ai'e pushed
inwards. Any other method would be a w^aste of fuel, and would raise too
much heat.

In the event of the habitation being burned down by a bush fire, or
accidentally — ^which often occurs in the absence of the inhabitants — the debits
are levelled, and a new wuum erected on the same spot, which is always
preferred ; but, in other circumstances hereafter described under the head of
native mounds, tlie spot is abandoned for ever as a place of residence.

A USTRALTAN ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER Vn.

CLEANLINESS.

It is worthy of remark that nothing offensive is ever to be seen near the

habitations of the aborigines, or in the neighbourhood of their camps; and

although their sanitary laws are apparently attributable to superstition and

prejudice, the principles of these laws must have been suggested by experience

of the dangei^s attendant on uncleanness in a warm climate, and more deeply

impressed on their minds by faith in supernatural action and sorcery. It is

believed that if enemies get possession of anything that has belonged to a person,

they can by its means make him ill ; hence every imcleanness belonging to

adults and half-grown children is buried at a distance from their dwellings.

For this purpose they use the muurong pole (yam stick), about six or seven feet

long, with which every family is provided. With the sharpened end they

remove a circular piece of turf, and dig a hole in the groimd, which is

immediately used and filled in with earth, and the sod so carefully replaced that

no disturbance of the surface can be observed. Children under four or five

years of age, not having strength to comply with this wholesome piticticc, are not

required to do so ; and theii* excreta are deposited in one spot, and covered with

a sheet of bark, and when dry they are bunied. It may be as well to say here,

that, besides this sanitary use of the muurang pole, it is indispensable in

excavating graves and in digging up roots, and is a powerful weapon of

warfare in the hands of the women, who alone use it for fighting.

In eveiy respect the aborigines are as cleanly in their persons and habits as
natural circumstances admit ; and, although the universal custom of anointing their
bodies with oily fat may be repulsive to highly-civilized communities, it is an
excellent substitute for cleansing with water, and must have arisen, not only
from the comfort it affords to the skin in various ways, but also from the
difiiculty of obtaining water in most parts of the country, even to satisfy thirst.
Neither are they troubled with parasites to such an extent as their habits might
lead one to suppose. They say they never saw the common flea till it was
inti-oduced by the white man, and the accuracy of this assertion seems to be

CLEANLINESS.

vouched for by the fact that they have no name for it. Nor did they ever see
the white louse until they came in contact with the white man, previous to
which the native louse was black ; but, foretokening the destiny of the aborigines,
the latter insect has disappeared, and the white louse is now the only kind
amongst them. So rare, however, is even this kind, that in no instance has the
writer seen one on a native.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES,

CHAPTER Vm.

DOMESTIC FUKNTTURE.

Every woman carries on her back, outside her rug, a basket made of a tough
kind of rush, occasionally ornamented with stitches of various kinds. They also
carry in the same way a bag formed of the tough inner bark of the acacia tree.
Failing to procure this bark, which is the best for the purpose, they use the inner
bark of the messmate or of the stringy-bark tree. This is spun into cord and
knitted with the fingers into the required shape. The capacity of these articles
is from two to three gallons each, and in them are carried food, sticks and tinder
for producing fire, gum for cement, shells, tools, charms, &c.

The women also make a rougher kind of basket out of the common rush,
which is used for cooking food in the ovens.

Domestic utensils are limited in number ; and, as the art of boiling food is
not understood, the natives have no pottery or materials capable of resisting fire.
Their cookery is consequently confined chiefly to roasting on embers or baking in
holes in the ground ; but as they consume great quantities of gum and manna
dissolved together in hot water, a wooden vessel for that purpose is formed of the
excrescence of a tree, which is hollowed out sufficiently large to contain a gallon
or two of water. This vessel is placed near enough to the fire to dissolve the
contents, but not to bum the wood. It is called 'yuuruum,' and must be
valuable, from the difficulty of procuring a suitable knob of wood, and from the
great labour of digging it hollow with a chisel made of the thigh bone of a
kangaroo.

Another vessel, named ' popseser yuu,' is used for carrying water, and is formed
of a sheet of fresh acacia bark, about twenty inches long by twelve broad, bent
double and sewed up at each side with kangaroo tail sinews, and the seams made
water-tight with an excellent cement, composed of wattle gum and wood ashes,
mixed in hot water. After the bucket is made it is himg up to dry, and the
contraction of the inner bark causes the vessel to assimie a circular shape, which
it retains ever after. It is carried by means of a band of twisted wattle bark
fixed across its mouth.

(

DOMESTIC FURNITURE. 16

A small water-bag, called 'paanuung/ is formed of the pouch of the
kangaroo, which, when fresh, is stuffed with withered grass till it is dry. A strip
of skin is fixed across its mouth for a handle.

For carrying water to a distance a bag called ' kowapp ' is used. It is made
of the skin of a male brush or wallaby kangaroo, cut off at the neck and stripped
downwards from the body and legs, and made water-tight by ligatures. The neck
forms the mouth of the bag. This vessel is carried on the shoulders by the
forelegs.

For keeping a supply of water in dry weather, a vessel called ' torrong * —
* boat' — is made of a sheet of bark stripped from the bend of a gum tree, about four
or five feet long, one foot deep, and one wide, in the shape of a canoe. To prevent
dogs drinking from it, it is supported several feet from the ground on forked
posts sunk in the earth. A wooden torrong is oilen used in the same way, and
is formed from a bend of a gum tree, hollowed out large enough to hold from five
to six gallons. As the water which they use is frequently ill-tasted, they put
some cones of the banksia into the torrong, in order to give a pleasant flavour
to its contents.

The millstone or mortar, so indispensable to the aborigines of the interior
for grinding the nardoo seed, is known, but rarely met with among the natives of
the sea coast, because they have not the nardoo, and have very little of any other
kind of seed to grind. They depend for food almost entirely on animals and
roots, which are more abundant than in the interior, where the seed of the nardoo
occasionally forms the chief sustenance of the aborigines.

There are two kinds of millstones, both formed of slabs of grey marble or
grey slate, of an oval shape, eighteen inches long by twelve inches broad. One
kind is hollowed out, like a shallow basin, to a depth of two inches ; the seed is put
into it, and ground with a flat stone of the same material as the mortar. The other
kind is about the same size, but, instead of being basin-shaped, it is flat, and has
two parallel hollows, each one foot long, five inches broad, and one inch deep, in
which the seed is placed and reduced to flour by two flat stones, held one in each
hand, and rubbed backwards and forwards.

While travelling, the natives always carry burning pieces of the dry thick
bark of the eucalyptus tree, to light their fires with, and to show the paths at
night ; but, as these might be extinguished while they are far from any fire,
implements for producing combustion are indispensable. These consist of the
thigh bone of a kangaroo, ground to a long fine point, and a piece of the dry

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

cane of the grass tree, about eighteen inches long. One end of the cane is bored
out, and is stuffed with tinder, made by teasing out the dry bark of the messmate
tree. The operator sits down and grasps the bone, point upwards, with his feet ;
he then places the hollow end of the cane, containing the bark, on the point of
the bone, and, with both hands, presses downwards, and twirls the upright cane
with great rapidity till the friction produces fire. Or, in the absence of the
kangaroo bone, a piece of dry grass tree cane, having in its upper side a hole bored
to the pith, is held flat on the ground with the feet, and the sharp point of a piece
of soft wood is pressed into the hole, and twirled vertically between the palms
of the hands till combustion takes place. Some dry stringy-bark fibre having
been placed round the hole, the fire is communicated to it by blowing. The
writer has seen flame produced by this method in two minutes.

COOKING AND FOOD. 17

CHAPTER IX.

COOKING AND FOOD.

Ovens are made outside the dwellings by digging holes in the ground, plastering
them with mud, and keeping a fire in them till quite hot, then withdrawing the
embers and lining the holes with wet grass. The flesh, fish, or roots are put into
baskets, which are placed in the oven and covered with more wet grass, gravel, hot
stones, and earth, and kept covered till they are cooked. This is done in the evening;
and, when cooking is in common — which is generally the case when many families
live together — each family comes next morning and removes its basket of food
for breakfast.

Ovens on a greater scale, for cooking large animals, are formed and heated in
the same way, with the addition of stones at the bottom of the oven ; and emus,
wombats, turkeys, or forest kangaroos — sometimes unskinned and entire, and
sometimes cut into pieces — are placed in them, and covered with leafy branches, [
wet grass, a sheet of bark, and embers on the top.

Ordinary cooking, such as roasting opossums, small birds, and eels, is
generally done on the embers of the domestic fire. When opossums are killed
expressly for food, and not for the skin, the fur is plucked or singed off while
the animal is still warm ; the entrails are pulled out through an opening in the
skin, stripped of their contents, and eaten raw, and their place stuffed with herbs ;
the body is then toasted and turned slowly before the fire without breaking the
skin, and, if not immediately required for food, is set aside to cool. Opossum
thus prepared will keep and may be carried about much better than if uncooked.
In this way the natives make provision for travelling through countiy
where food is scarce. They are very fond of opossum iwrhen the animal is in
ordinary condition, but dislike it when fat. Kangaroo tails are cooked
unskinned, first singeing and scraping off the hair, and then toasting them before
the fire till thoroughly done. By this method none of the juices of the meat
escape ; and what would otherwise be dry food is made savoury and nutritious.
As the sinews, however, which are very strong, would render the meat tough,
they are all pulled out previous to toasting, and are stretched and dried, and are

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

kept for sewing rugs and lashing the handles of stone hatchets and butt pieces
of spears. Skulls and bones are split up, and the brains and marrow roasted.
The brains are considered a great delicacy, and keep for a long time after being
cooked. Eels are seldom eaten quite fresh ; and, to impart a high flavour to
them, they are buried in the ground until slightly tainted, and then roasted.

The aborigines exercise a wise economy in killing animals. It is considered
illegal and a waste of food to take the life of any edible creature for pleasure
alone, a snake or an eagle excepted. Articles of food are abundant, and of great
variety ; for everything not actually poisonous or connected with superstitious
beliefs is considered wholesome. The natives never touch putrid flesh, however,
except that of the whale, which the Peek whuurong natives bury till quite
rotten. They are aware of the danger of inoculation by dead animal matter,
and will not eat any animal imless they know how it has lost its life. The
kangaroo and the emu they will eat if they have reason to believe that they have
been killed by wild dogs, but they will not touch any food which has been
partaken of by a stranger. They have no objection to eat tainted flesh or fish.
If it is too far gone it is thoroughly roasted to dispel the unpleasant flavour.
Fish that have been exposed to the rays of the moon are rejected as poisonous.
Maggoty meat is rejected ; and to prevent the flies from blowing the meat, it is
hung in the smoke of the domestic fire.

Of quadrupeds, they eat the several kinds of kangaroo, the wombat — which
is excellent eating — the bear, wild dog, porcupine ant-eater, opossum, flying
squirrel, bandicoot, dasyure, platypus, water rat, and many smaller animals.
Before the occupation of the great plains by cattle and sheep, there were
numerous black and brown quadrupeds, called the yaakar, about the size of
the rabbit, and with open pouches like the dasyures. They were herbivorous, and
burrowed in mounds, living in communities in the open plains, where they had
their nests. They had four or five young ones at a time ; and, from what the
natives say about the numbers that they dug up, they must have furnished a
plentiful supply of food at all times. As these animals are now extinct in the
Western District, although the remains of their burrows are still to be seen, it is
supposed that they were the jerboa or bilboa, which are still very plentiful and
troublesome in the interior of Australia.

The aborigines eat eagles and birds of prey, the emu, turkey bustard,
gigantic crane, herons, and swan ; geese and ducks in great variety, cormorants,
ibis, curlew, coot, water-hen, lapwings, cockatoos, parrots, pigeons, crows, quails,

COOKING AND FOOD.

snipes, and a great many kinds of sea fowls. The pelican and its eggs are
considered too fishy to eat.

The tortoise and its eggs are much sought after. Snakes are considered
good food, but are not eaten if they have bitten themselves, as the natives
believe that the poison, when taken into the stomach, is as deadly as when
injected into the blood by a bite. Lizards and frogs of all sorts are cooked and
eaten.

Of fish, the eel is the favourite ; but, besides it, there are many varieties of
fish in the lakes and rivers, which are eaten by the natives. One in particular,
called the tuupuurn, is reckoned a very great delicacy. It is caught plentifully,
with the aid of long baskets, in the mouths of rivers during its passage to and
from the sea, of which migration the natives are well aware.

Vast quantities of mollusca must have been consumed from very remote
periods by the natives occupying the country adjoining the sea coast ; for opposite
eveiy reef of rocks affording shelter to shell fish, immense beds of shells of
various sorts are to be seen in the sand-hills, in layers intermixed with pieces of
charred wood, ashes, and stones having the marks of fire on them. In some
places where the action of the wind and spray has caused the hummocks to slip
down into the sea, the layers of shells are exposed to a great depth ; and, as they
could not have been placed in their present positions by natural means along with
pieces of burnt trap-rock, charred wood, and ashes, there is no doubt that they are
of similar origin with the aboriginal deposits found on the east coast of Scotland
and sea shores of Denmark and Holland, called ' middens' by the Scotch and
' moedens * by the Dutch. These immense mounds of shells being met with only
near the sea, and nowhere in the interior, leads to the conclusion that the aborigines
who fed on the mollusca and fish, never left the shore during the fishing season ;
and that, if they came from the interior, they never carried away any shell-fish
with them, otherwise sea shells would be found in abundance at their old camping
places in the bush, at a distance from the sea. An ancient deposit of marine shells,
having every appearance of an aboriginal midden, was some years ago exposed on
the east bank of the Yarra- Yarra River, near the Falls Bridge. At this spot a reef of
rocks — which has been since partially removed — ^kept back the tide, and preserved
the water suflSciently fresh for domestic purposes. This, no doubt, enabled the
natives to camp there for fishing purposes ; and hence the large depasit of shells
at this spot.

Of roots and vegetables they have plenty. The muurang, which somewhat

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES,

resembles a small parsnip, with a flower like a buttercup, grows chiefly on the
open plains. It is much esteemed on account of its sweetness, and is dug up by
the women with the muurang pole. The roots are washed and put into a
rush basket made on purpose, and placed in the oven in the evening to be ready
for next morning's breakfast. When several families live near each other and
cook their roots together, sometimes the baskets form a pile three feet high. The
cooking of the muurang entails a considerable amount of labour on the women,
inasmuch as the baskets are made by them ; and as these often get burnt, they
rarely serve more than twice. The muurang root, when cooked, is called
yuwatch. It is often eaten uncooked. The bulbous root, muuyuup, of the
common orchis, hinniehinnitch, and of another named yarrayarupp, are eaten
either raw or cooked. The weeakk, resembling a small carrot, is cooked in
hot ashes without a basket. The bulb of the clematis, 'taaruuk,' is dug up in
winter, cooked in baskets, and kneaded on a small sheet of bark into dough,
and eaten under the name of murpit. The root of the native convolvulus, also
called taaruuk, is cooked in the same way, and forms the principal vegetable
food in winter, when the muurang is out of season. A tuber, called puewan,
about the size of a walnut, and resembling the earthnut of Europe, is dug up, and
eaten roasted. It has no stalk or leaf to mark its locality, and is discovered
from the shallow holes scraped by the bandicoots in search of it, and from a
scarcity of herbage in the neighbourhood. A variety of the sedge — ^the flag of
the cooper — ^has a root of pleasant flavour, resembling celery, which is eaten
uncooked as a salad. So also are the salsuginous pl^nt, the mesembryanthemum,
or pig's face, and the sow thistle. The latter is eaten to produce sleep. A kind
of bread is made of the root of the common fern, roasted in hot ashes, and beaten
into paste with a stone.

Mushrooms, and several kinds of fungi, are eaten raw ; and a large under-
ground fungus, about the size of an ordinary turnip, called native bread by
white people, is eaten uncooked, and is very good.

Large numbers of pupae, found in the ground at the foot of gum trees,
are dug up in winter, and baked in hot ashes. They are the transitional forms
of large green processional caterpillars, which crawl in lines on the stems
of trees in search of a place to rest during their change into the pupa state.
Of this transformation, and of their ultimately becoming moths, the aborigines
are well aware. In addition to these there are many delicacies, chiefly collected
by the women and children, and cooked in hot ashes, such as grubs, small fish.

frogs, lizards, birds* eggs, lizard and tortoise eggs. The grubs are about the
size of the little finger, and are cut out of trees and dead timber, and are eaten
alive, while the work of chopping is going on, with as much pleasure as a white
man eats a living oyster ; but with this difference, that caution is necessary to
avoid their powerful mandibles, ever ready to bite the lips or tongue. Roasted
on embers, they are delicate and nutty in flavour, varying in quality according
to the kind of tree into which they bore, and on which they feed. Those
found in the trunks of the common wattle are considered the finest and sweetest.
Every hunter carries a small hooked wand, to push into the holes of the wood,
and draw them out. With an axe and an old grub-eaten tree, an excellent
meal is soon procured; and when the women and children hear the sound of
chopping, they hasten to partake of the food, which they enjoy above all others.
The large fat grubs, to be found in quantities on the banks of marshes,
drowned out of their holes, in times of floods, are gathered and cooked in hot
ashes by the women and children.

The girni of the acacia, or common wattle tree, is largely consumed as
food, as well as for cement ; and each man has an exclusive right to a certain
number of trees for the use of himself and family. As soon as the summer heat
is over, notches are cut in the bark to allow the gum to exude. It is then
gathered in large lumps, and stored for use.

A sweet substance, called buumbuul (manna), resembling small pieces of
loaf sugar, with a fine delicate flavour, which exudes and drops from the leaves
and small branches of some kinds of gum trees, is gathered and eaten by the
children, or mixed in a wooden vessel with acacia gum dissolved in hot water,
as a drink. Another kind of manna, also called buumbuul, is deposited in
considerable quantities by the large dark-coloured cicadsa on the stems of white
gum trees near the River Hopkins. The natives ascend the trees, and scrape off
as much as a bucketful of waxen cells filled with a liquid resembling honey,
which they mix with gum dissolved in cold water, and use as a drink. They
say that, in consequence of the great increase of opossums, caused by the
destruction of the wild dog, they never get any buumbuul now, as the opossums
eat it all. Another sweet liquid is obtained by mischievous boys from young
parrakeets after they are fed by the old birds with honey dew, gathered from
the blossom of the trees. When a nest is discovered in the hole of a gum tree,
it is constantly visited, and the young birds pulled out, and held by their
feet till they disgorge their food into the mouth of their unwelcome visitant.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

"■ In summer, when the surface of the ground is parched, and the marshes
dried up, the natives carry a long reed perforated from end to end, which they
push down the holes made by crabs in swamps, and suck up the water. When
obliged to drink from muddy pools full of animalculse, they put a full-blown
cone of the banksia tree into their mouths, and drink through it, which gives a
fine flavour to the water, and excludes impurities. | The name of the cone, when
used for this purpose, is tatteen mimg neung weeriitch gnat — ^^ drink eye
banksia tree belonging to.'

The southern portions of Australia are remarkably deficient in native fruits,
and the only kind deserving the name is a berry which the aborigines of the
locality call 'nurt,' resembling a red-cheeked cherry without the pip, which
grows abundantly on a creeper amongst the sand on the hummocks near the
mouth of the River Glenelg. It is very much sought after, and, when ripe, is
gathered in great quantities by the natives, who come from long distances to
feast on it, and reside in the locality while it l&sts. In collecting the berries
they pull up the plants, which run along the surface of the sand in great
lengths, and carry them on their backs to their camps to pick off the fruit
at their leisure. On the first settlement of the district by sheepowners these
berries were gathered by the white people, and they me^le excellent jam and
tarts.

There are strict rules regulating the distribution of food. When a hunter
brings game to the camp he gives up all claim to it, and must stand aside
and allow the best portions to be given away, and content himself with the
worst. K he has a brother present, the brother is treated in the same way, and
helps the killer of the game to eat the poor pieces, which are thrown to them,
such as the forequarters and ribs of the kangaroos, opossums, and small
quadrupeds, and the backbones of birds. The narrator of this custom mentioned
that when he was very young he used to grumble because his father gave away
all the best pieces of birds and quadrupeds, and the finest eels, but he was told
that it was a rule and must be observed. This custom is called yuurka
baawhaar, meaning 'exchange;' and, to show the strict observance of it, and
the punishment for its infringement, they tell a story of a mean fellow named
Wirtpa Mit, signif 3dng ' selfish,' who lived on kangaroos, which were very scarce
in those days. When he killed one he ate it all himself, and would not give
away a morsel. This conduct so displeased his friends that they resolved to
punish him, but as it was difficult to do so without infringing the laws of the

COOKING AND FOOD.

tribe, they dug a deep pit and covered it over with branches and grass. When
the trap was ready, they drove some kangaroos in its direction, and advised
Wirtpa Mit to follow them. He fell into the trap, and they covered over the top
of the pit, leaving only a small hole to give him air and sunshine. There they
kept him without food till he was nearly dead. He begged of them to make
the opening larger, and when they acceded to his request he made his escape,
but was so weak from starvation that they afterwards killed him and put him
into the hole and filled it up. To this day this place is named after him, and
the story is told to the young people as a warning not to be ' selfish.'

24 A USTRA LI AN ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER X.

TOOLS.

The natives have few tools ; the principal one is the stone axe, which resembles
the stone celts found in Europe. This useful and indispensable implement is of
various sizes. It is made chiefly of green stone, shaped like a wedge, and ground
at one end to a sharp edge. At the other end it is grasped in the bend of a doubled
piece of split sapling, bound with kangaroo sinews, to form a handle, which is
cemented to it with a composition of gum and shell lime. This cement is made
by gathering fresh wattle gum, pulling it into small pieces, masticating it with
the teeth, and then placing it between two sheets of green bark, which are put
into a shallow hole in the ground, and covered up with hot ashes till the gum is
dissolved. It is then taken out, and worked and pulled with the hands till it has
become quite stringy, when it is mixed with lime made of burnt mussel shells,
pounded in a hollow stone — which is always kept for the purpose — and kneaded
into a tough paste. This cement is indispensable to the natives in making their
tools, spears, and water buckets. The stone axe is so valuable and scarce that it
is generally the property of the chief of the tribe. He lends it, however, for a
consideration, to the best climbers, who use it to cut steps in the bark of trees, to
enable them to climb in search of bears, opossums, birds, and nests, and also to
cut wood and to strip bark for their dwellings. For the latter purpose the butt
end of the handle of the axe is made wedge-shaped, to push under the sheets of
bark and prize them ofl^ the trees.

Another stone tool, like a chisel without a handle, is used in forming weapons
and wooden vessels. With splinters of flint and volcanic glass the surface of
wooden articles is scraped and smoothed, and every man carries a piece of hard,
porous lava, as a rasp, to grind the points of spears and poles. These stone
implements, although well known to the middle-aged aborigines of the present
day, are, in consequence of the introduction of iron, not now in use or to be met
with, excepting about old aboriginal camping places.

The writer lately found, in a ploughed field, two stones, which he showed to
one of the oldest and most intelligent men of the Colac tribe. One of them is an

TOOLS. 25

oval, siliciouB stone, very hard, about six inches long, five inches broad, and three
inches thick, waterwom, and slightly hollowed on one side, as if used for
pounding some hard substance upon, and rounded on the other side, with a funnel-
shaped hole in the centre two inches in diameter at the mouth and one inch deep,
and having a much smaller hole of the same form on each side of the larger one
and joining it. The other stone, which was found lying alongside, is of the same
material, of cylindrical shape, six inches long by three inches in diameter, with
one end pointed so as to fit into the centre hole of thp flat stone. The natives to
whom these were shown said they had never seen anything like them before,
and did not know their use. It is evident, however, that they were an
aboriginal mortar and pestle for grinding shells for cement. The writer has them
still in his possession.

A tool is made of the large bone of the hind leg of the forest kangaroo,
sharpened to a chisel point. With this tool is cut the hole for the hand through
the heavy shield, Malkar. A bodkin, or awl, is formed from the small bone of
the hind leg of the forest kangaroo, ground to a fine point, and is used for sewing
rugs. A finely-tapered sharp pin is mfi^le of the small leg bone of the brush
kangaroo or opossum, and is essential for extracting thorns and splinters of wood
from the hands and feet. Ti-tree pins are used for pegging out the skins of the
forest kangaroo.

Knives are of various kinds and material, according to the purposes they are
to serve. For skinning animals, marking rugs, and cutting the human skin to
produce ornamental wens on the chest, back, and arms, knives are made of
splinters of flint, or of sharpened mussel shells. The sea mussel shell found on
the coast at Warmambool is preferred, but freshwater mussel shells are also
used. For skinning the ring-tailed opossum, and for dividing meat, the leaf of
the grass-tree is used, and also the long front teeth of the bandicoot, with the
jaw attached as a handle. The shells of the freshwater mussel and of the sea
snail serve for spoons. Every person carries one. In making necklaces of the
quills of the porcupine ant-eater, the holes at the roots of the quills are burned
through with a wooden pin made red-hot in the fire.

AUSTRALIAir ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER XL

LAWS OF KABRIAOE.

The laws of marriage among the aborigines are remarkably well devised;
and exhibit a method and ingenuity which could not have been looked for
among a people who were so long considered the lowest of the hutnan race.

The object of these laws is to prevent marriages between those of 'one
flesh'— 'Tow' wil yerr.'

As has been shown in the first chapter, the aborigines are divided into
tribes. Every person is considered to belong to his father's tribe, and cannot
marry into it. Besides this division, there is another which is made solely for
the purpose of preventing marriages with Toatemal relatives. The aborigines
are everywhere divided into classes ; and everyone is considered to belong to his
mother's class, and cannot marry into it in any tribe, as all of the same class
are considered brothers and sisters.

There are five classes in all the tribes of the Western District, and these
take their names from certain animals — the long-billed cockatoo, kuurokeetch ;
the pelican, kartpcerapp; the banksian cockatoo, kappatch; the boa snake,
kirtuuk ; and the quail, kuunamit.

According to their classes the aborigines are distinguished, as —

Kuurokeetch, male ; kuurokaheear, female.
Kartpcerapp, male ; kartpcerapp heear, female.
Kappatch, male ; kappaheear, female.
Kirtuuk, male ; kirtuuk heear, female.
Kuunamit, male ; kuunamit heear, female.

Kuurokeetch and kartpcerapp, however, are so related, that they are looked
upon as sister classes, and no marriage between them is permitted. It is the
same between kappatch and kirtuuk ; but as kuunamit is not so related, it can
marry into any class but its own. Thus a kuurokeetch may marry a kappaheear,
a kirtuuk heear, or a kuunamit heear, but cannot marry a kuurokaheear or a
kartpoerapp heear. A kappatch may marry a kuurokaheear, a kartpcerapp heear,
or a kuunamit heear, but cannot marry a kappaheear or a kirtuuk heear. A

LAWS OF MARRIAGE.

kuunamit may marry a kuurokaheear, a kartpoerapp heear, a kappaheear, or a
kirtuuk heear, but cannot marry a kuunamit heear.

The traditions of the aborigines say that the first progenitor of the tribes
treated of in this volume, the kuukuur minjer, or first great great grandfather,
was by descent a kuurokeetch, long-billed cockatoo, but whence he came no one
knows. He had for a wife a kappaheear, banksian cockatoo. She is called the
kuurappa mcel, meaning first great great grandmother. This original pair had
sons and daughters, who, of course, belonged to the class of their mother. The
sons were kappatch, and the daughters kappaheear. As the laws of consanguinity
forbade marriages between these, it was necessary to introduce wambepan
tuuram, ' fresh fiesh,* which could be obtained only by marriage with strangers.
The sons got wives from a distance. Their sons, again, had to do the same ; and
thus the pelican, snake, and quail classes were introduced, which, together with
those of their first parents, form the five maternal classes which exist all through
the Western District.

The laws of the aborigines also forbid a man marrying into his mother's
tribe or his grandmother s tribe, or into an adjoining tribe, or one that speaks his
own dialect. A man is allowed to marry his brother's widow, or his own
deceased wife's sister, or a woman of her tribe ; but he is not permitted to do so
if he has divorced or killed his wife. He may not marry his deceased wife's
daughter by a former husband.

A common man may not have more than one wife at a time. Chiefs,
however, may have as many wives as they think proper. The sons of chiefs may
marry two wives.

Chiefs, and their sons and daughters, are married only into the families
of other chiefs. K a chief persists in marrying a commoner, his children by that
marriage are not disinherited; but such marriages are highly disapproved of.
The natives say that if chiefs were permitted to marry commoners, it would lead
to endless quarrels and jealousies.

When a married man dies, his brother is bound to marry the widow if she
has a family, as it is his duty to protect her and rear his brother's children.
If there is no brother, the chief sends the widow to her own tribe, with whom
she must remain till her period of mourning is ended. Those of her children
who are under age are sent with her, and remain with their mother's tribe till
they come of age, when they return to their father's tribe, to which they belong.
After the period of mourning for her deceased husband expires, the relatives of

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

the widow, with the sanction of the chief, make arrangements for her re-marriage,
and she must marry the man chosen for her. If the widow has no near relatives,
the arrangements are made by the chief of her tribe. Her own inclinations are
not consulted in the matter.

No marriage or betrothal is permitted without the approval of the chiefs of
each party, who first &scertain that no 'flesh' relationship exists, and even then
their permission must be rewarded by presents.

So strictly are the laws of marriage carried out, that, should any signs of
affection and courtship be observed between those of * one flesh,* the brothers, or
male relatives of the woman beat her severely ; the man is brought before the
chief, and accused of an intention to fall into the same flesh, and is severely
reprimanded by the tribe. K he persists, and runs away with the object of his
affections, they beat and 'cut his head all over;' and if the woman was a
consenting party she is half killed. If she dies in consequence of her punishment,
her death is avenged by the man's receiving an additional beating from her
relatives. No other vengeance is taken, as her punishment is legal. A child
bom under such conditions is taken from the parents, and handed over to the
care of its grandmother, who is compelled to rear it^ as no one else will
adopt it.

It says much for the morality of the aborigines and their laws that
illegitimacy Ls rare, and is looked upon with such abhorrence that the mother is
always severely beaten by her relatives, and sometimes put to death and burned.
Her child is occasionally killed and burned with her. The father of the child is
also punished with the greatest severity, and occasionally killed. Should he
survive the chastisement inflicted upon him, he is always shunned by the
woman's relatives, and any efforts to conciliate them with gifts are spumed, and
his presents are put in the fire and burned.

Since the advent of the Europeans among them, the aborigines have
occasionally disregarded their admirable marriage laws, and to this disregard
they attribute the greater weakness and unhealthiness of their children.

As a preventive of illegal marriages, parents betroth their children when
just able to walk. The proposal to betroth is made by the father of the girl.
If the boy's father approves, he gives the girl a present of an opossum rug,
and shows her attention, and gives her ' nice things to eat' when he sees her
at great meetings. The father of the girl takes her occasionally to see her
intended husband, but he is not permitted to return the visit.

The girl's mother and her aunts may neither look at him nor speak to him
from the time of their betrothal till his death. Should he come to the camp
where they are living, he must lodge at a friend's wuum, as he is not allowed
to go within fifty yards of their habitation ; aild should he meet them on a path
they immediately leave it, clap their hands, cover up their heads with their
rugs, walk in a stooping position, and speak in whispers till he has gone past.
When he meets them away from their camp they do not converse with him,
and when he and they speak in each other's presence they use a lingo, called
wiltkill ang iitch in the chaap wuurong dialect, and gnee wee banott in the kuum
kopan noot and peek whuurong dialects, meaning ' turn tongue/ This is not
used with the intention of concealment of their meaning, for it is understood by
all. The intended mother-in-law, though she may not speak to the boy, may
express her approval of what he says by clapping her hands. He never mentions
her name at any time, and when he speaks about her to anyone, he calls her
gnulluun guurk in the chaap wuurong dialect, and gnulluun yerr in the kuum
kopan noot and peek whuurong dialects. She, in speaking about him, calls him
gnalluun joek in the chaap wuurong dialect, and gnalluun in the kuum kopan
noot and peek whuurong dialects.

Examples of turn tongue vn chaap wuurong dialect : —

Where are you going just now ?

Winjalat kuuma new ?
Turn tongue, — Winja gniinkima ?

It will be very warm by-and-bye.

Wulpiya gnuureen.
Ttuim tongv^^ — Gnullewa gnuureen.

Examples in kuv/m kopan 'noot dialect : —

Where are you going just now ?

Wuundagninkitneeani
Turn tongue, — Wuun gni gnin gninkeewan ?

It will be very warm by-and-bye.

Baawan kulluun.
Tu/m tongue, — Gnullewa gnatnoen tirambuuL

A wild blackfellow is coming to kill you.

Wattatan kuut gno yaul yuul.
Turn tongue. — Kulleet bortakuut yung a gnak kuuno nong.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

In nearly all the aboriginal tribes of Australia young men are not allowed
to marry until they have been formally initiated into manhood. In some tribes
this initiation requires them to be subjected to ordeals and ceremonies more or
less repulsive. In other tribes the trials are so severe that they often not only
ruin the health, but cause the death of many delicate young men. Indeed,
it is possible that they are designed to get rid of the weakly, who would be of
no use either in hunting or in war, and would be only an encumbrance to the
tribe. The customs, however, of those tribes which are treated of in this volume
are quite free from this repulsiveness and severity.

A youth is not considered to be a man until he has undergone this probation,
which is called katneetch in the chaap wuurong dialect, katnitt in the kuurn
kopan noot dialect, and tapmet in the peek whuurong dialect. During the
progress of this probation he is called kutneet, which is really * hobbledehoy.'
No person related to him by blood can interfere or assist in the proceedings.
Should the boy have brothers-in-law, they come and take him into a wuum,
dress and ornament him, and remove him to their own country, where he remains
for twelve moons. Should he not have brothers-in-law, strangers from a distant
tribe come and take him to their country, where he is received with welcome by
his new friends. After two moons he is allowed to visit his own tribe, but not
without several men to take care of him and bring him back. If, during his
sojourn, he becomes ill, he is sent home to his own tribe, for, were he to die,
they would avenge his death. During the term of probation his wants are
liberaUy supplied, and he is not permitted to do anything for himself. When he
wishes to go anywhere, he must be carried by the men who brought him from
his own country. The women also of the tribe must wait upon him with every
mark of respect, and should any disobey his orders he has a right to spear them.
He is not allowed to speak the language of the tribe, but he learns to understand
it when spoken. At the end of twelve moons his relatives call and take him to
attend the first great meeting of the tribes. Before leaving, they pull out
all the hairs of his beard, and make him drink water mixed with mud ; which
completes his initiation into manhood. The knocking out of the upper front
teeth, which is practised by some other tribes on such occasions, is unknown in
the Western District.

He is then introduced to the young woman who is to be his wife. They
may look at one another, but are not allowed to converse. When the young
man's beard has grown again, and the young woman has attained a marriageable

LAWS OF MARRIAGE. 31

age, she is sent away from her tribe, and placed imder the care of the young
man's mother, or his nearest female relative, who keeps her imtil they are
married, but not in the same wuum with her intended husband. She is
constantly attended by one of his female relatives, but is not permitted to speak
their tribal language. She is expected, however, to learn it sufficiently to
understand it. A day is fixed for the marriage, and invitations are sent to the
relatives and friends of both parties.

As such ceremonies are always accompanied with feasting and amusements,
great preparations are made, and all kinds of food collected, such, for example,
as emus' and swans' eggs, opossums, kangaroos, and wild fowl. An emu which
is killed while hatching is considered a great treat, as then both bird and eggs
can be eaten ; and if the eggs have young ones in them so much the greater will
be the delicacy. These things are cooked at a considerable distance from the
camp, and brought to it at mid-day by the friends of the bridegroom. At this
stage of the proceedings they are p9>rtaken of only by the friends of the bride.
At sunset, the friends and relations of the bridegroom and bride, numbering
possibly two hundred, sit on opposite sides, within a large circle formed of the
leafy boughs of trees, with a fire in the centre. The bride is introduced by her
bridemaid, and seated in front of her friends. The bridal attire is very simple.
Her hair is braided, and bound with a plaited bark brow band, coloured red.
In front of the brow band is stuck a bunch of red feathers, from the neck of the
long-billed cockatoo. White streaks are painted over and under her eyes, with
red lines below. The usual kilt of emu feathers is worn round the loins, and
she is covered from the shoulders downwards with an opossum rug.

The bridegroom also is painted with a white streak over and under the
eyes, and red lines beneath them. He wears a brow band the same as that of
the bride, but it is ornamented in front with a white feather from a swan's wing,
the web of which is torn down, so as to flutter in the wind. He wears the
usual apron, and a rug of the ring-tail opossum, thrown over the shoulders
like a mantle. This is fastened in front with a bone pin, and reaches to the
knees. He is attended by two or three young bachelors, who are painted and
ornamented for the occasion. They lead him from the wuum of a friend to his
bride, who receives him with downcast eyes and in silence. He then declares that
he accepts the woman for his wife. Feasting then begins. When everyone is
satisfied, a chief calls out, "Let us have a dance before the children go
to bed." The karweann is then commenced, and kept up till midnight.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

The bridegroom is conducted by his bridemen to a new wuum, erected for him
by his friends ; and his wife is taken to it by her bridemaids. For several days
afterwards hunting, feasting, and amusements, with dancing and pantomime at
night, are kept up till all friends depart for their homes with the usual
* wo, wo' — * good-bye, good-bye/

The newly-married pair are well fed and attended to by their relatives.
The bridemaid, who must be the nearest adult unmarried relative of the bride-
groom, is obliged to sleep with the bride on one side of the fire for two moons,
and attend her day and night. The bridegroom sleeps for the same period on
the opposite side of the fire with the brideman, who is always a bachelor friend,
and must attend him day and night. The newly-married couple are not allowed
to speak to or look at each other. The bride is, during this period, called a
tiirok meetnya — ' not look round.' She keeps her head and face covered with
her opossum rug while her husband is present. He also keeps his face turned
away from her, much to the amusement of the young people, who peep into
their wuum and laugh at them. If they need to speak to one another they
must speak through their friends.

On the termination of this period, the bridemaid, or some other adult
female relative of the bridegroom, takes the bride to see her own relatives
for a week or two. The husband remains at home. When she returns, the
attendance of the brideman and bridemaid is dispensed with. Ever afterwards
the bridemaid, and other female friends, may sleep under the same roof with the
married people, but on the opposite side- of the fire.

After they have been married some months, they are visited by the parents
of the bride. The bride's father can enter their wuum, and converse with them
as formerly; but the mother lives with her husband in a separate residence
specially erected for them, and sees her daughter there. This visit is returned
by the bridegroom and bride, for whose accommodation a wuum is erected by
the bride's friends. The mother-in-law can never speak to her daughter's
husband, or enter his wuum. If she meets him, she must cover up her head
with her rug, walk in a stooping position, and speak in whispers while he is
near. To such a length is this remarkable law carried, that it is not departed
from even while one of them is dying. After death, however, the living
looks upon the dead. The aborigines, who show great willingness to
give explanations of their laws and habits to those persons they respect,
cannot give any reason for this very extraordinary custom, which is said

LAWS OF MARRIAGE. 33

to be observed all over Australia, and in several island groups in the Pacific
Ocean.

A chief who has been married under the law of betrothal, is not permitted
to marry another woman for a long time ; and should he do so without obtaining
the consent of his wife, there would be constant quarrelling, as the first wife is
always superior in authority to the others, and is naturally jealous of a rival.

A man can divorce his wife for serious misconduct, and can even put her to
death; but in every case the charge against her must first be laid before the
chiefs of his own and his wife's tribes, and their consent to her punishment
obtained. If the wife has children, however, she cannot be divorced. Should a
betrothed woman be found after marriage to have been unfaithful, her husband
must divorce her. Her relations then remove her and her child to her own
tribe, and compel the father of the child to marry her, unless he be a relative.
In that case she must remain unmarried. If a husband is unfaithful, his wife
cannot divorce him. She may make a complaint to the chief, who can punish
the man by sending him away from his tribe for two or three moons ; and the
guilty woman is very severely pimished by her relatives.

The courtship of those who have not been betrothed to each other when
yoimg is regulated by very strict laws. Korroborses, and great meetings of the
tribes, are the chief opportunities for selecting wives ; as there the young people
of various and distant tribes have an opportunity of seeing one another. A
married man or a widower can speak to a married woman or to a widow, but
they are not allowed to go beyond the boundaries of the camp together at
any time, unless they are accompanied by another married person. Unmarried
adults of both sexes are kept strictly apart from those of another tribe, and
are always under the eyes of their parents or guardians. The young women are
not permitted to leave the neighbourhood of their wuums at any time, unless
accompanied by a near relative. As there can be thus no personal communication
between marriageable persons outside of the limits of consanguinity, a mutual
friend, called a gnapunda, 'match maker,' is employed to carry messages, but
this can only be done with the approval of the parents or guardians of both
parties.

When a man falls in love with a young woman, he does not always consult
her wishes, or procure her consent to marriage, but makes his proposal to the
father through her uncle or cousin. If the father approve, he informs the suitor
that he may marry his daughter ; and to this decision she must submit, whether

34 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

she admires the man or not. From the time when the proposal is accepted
till they are married they are not permitted to speak to each other. Should she
express reluctance to the match — which is often the case — the friends of the
suitor accompany him to her father's wuum, with his hands tied together with
a rope made of the twisted inner bark of the blackwood tree. He is then
introduced to her, and the rope is removed by his friends; and, after sitting
beside her till sunset, he conducts her to his wuum, which has been enlarged
for her accommodation. The woman geneiully reconciles herself to the match,
and remains quietly among her new friends. But, if she is dissatisfied, and runs
away, the husband, failing to entice her to return home, considers he has a
right to kill her. If he does so, however, her father, brothers, or uncles, in
retaliation, can kill any of his relatives. The exercise of this right would thus
lead to a quarrel between the families and their respective tribes.

K a young orphan woman elopes with a man of another tribe against the
wishes of her relatives, notice is sent to him that she must be brought back, or
she will be taken by force. Should the warning be unattended to, his wuurn is
visited at daybreak by four or five of the woman's male friends, armed with
spears and marwhangs, but not with boomerangs ; they seize and stupefy her
with blows, and carry her ofi*. K the man or his friends resist, the contest
frequently ends in the death of some of them, and, it may be, of the woman
herself. If no warning has been given of an intention to take her away, the man
knows that she may be suddenly removed, and given to another. Sometimes
he will kill her rather than allow her to be given to another man ; but he does
this with the certainty of retaliation on himself, or on his aunt or female cousin.
Should the woman escape a second time from her relatives, and return to the
man, she is then considered his lawful wife, and cannot be taken from him.

Besides the custom of selecting wives at the great meetings and korroborsas,
any two young men of difierent tribes and classes, having each a sister or cousin,
may agree, with the consent of their chiefs, to exchange the young women and
marry them. This is done without any previous courtship, or consent on the
part of the women, even although they may be perfect strangers to the men, and
they must submit.

The rule is that a father alone can give away his daughter. If the father
is dead the ison can dispose of the daughter, with the consent of the uncle.
Should the woman have no male relative, the chief has the power of bestowing
her on anyone he thinks proper; but his consent is reluctantly sought, as it

LAWS OF MARRIAGE. 36

attracts his attention to his power over her, and frequently results in his taking
the young woman himself.

If a chief is a man of ability, exhibiting bravery in battle or skill in
hunting, he is often presented with wives from other chiefs, who have generally
some whom they wish to part with. These women are given without their
consent, and the man must take them as a mark of friendship. It would seem,
however, that these gifts are not always appreciated, for Puulom Puul, who
communicated this information, at the same time moodily muttered aside, in his
own language, ' Dear knows, there are plenty of them, when a husband has to put
up with half-a-dozen.' In cases where they are aged and infirm, the transfer is
made against the inclination of both parties.

A young man, who belongs to the chief's family, very reluctantly seeks the
consent of the head of the family to his marriage, for it frequently ends in the
old chief taking the young woman himself. To such an extent is this tyrannical
system of polygamy carried on by the old chiefs, that many young men are
compelled to remain bachelors, the native word for which means * to look out,'
while an old warrior may have five or six of the finest young women of other
tribes for his wives.

Exchange of wives is permitted only after the death of their parents, and, of
course, with the consent of the chiefs ; but is not allowed if either of the women
has children. When such an exchange is effected, both couples occupy different
compartments in the same wuum, and assist each other amicably in household
duties.

A husband and wife without children can agree to dissolve their marriage.
In such a case the woman must return to her tribe, and can marry again.

When a woman is treated with cruelty by her husband, she may put herself
under the protection of another man, with the intention of becoming his wife.
If he take upon him the duty of protecting her, he must challenge her husband
and defeat him in single combat in presence of the chiefs and friends of both
parties. Having done so, their marriage is recognized as legal ; but ever after-
wards the first husband calls her a wannagnum heear, ' cast-off* wife,' and she
calls him wannagnum, ' cast-off* husband.' If a husband knows that his wife is
in love with another man, and if he has no objection to part with her, he takes
h^ basket to the man's wuum, and leaves it. But as no marriage, or exchange
of wives can take place without the consent of the chief, the wife remains with
her husband till the first great meeting, when the bargain is confirmed. This

amicable separation does not create any ill feeling between the parties, as the
woman is always kind to her first husband without causing any jealousy on the
part of the second. Such transactions, although lawful, may not be approved of
by the woman's relatives, and she is liable to be speared by her brother.

A single woman or widow belonging to a chief's family, can, with his
consent, marry another chief, or his son, by simply sitting down in his wuum
beside his wife, who cannot prevent the match. But the first wife is always the
mistress.

A young chief who cannot get a wife, and falls in love with one belonging
to a chief who has more than two, can, with her consent, challenge the husband
to single combat, and, if he defeats him, he makes her his legal wife ; but the
defeated husband never afterwards speaks to her.

A man falling in love with a young woman who will not consent to marry
him, tries to get a lock of her hair, and, should he obtain it, he covers it with fat
and red clay, and carries it about with him for one year. The knowledge of this
so depresses the woman that she pines away. Should she die, her relatives and
friends attribute her death to his having cast a spell over her, and they punish
the man severely, and keep up enmity against him for a long time. In consequence
of this superstition, the natives always bum their superfluous hair in a fire
outside their dwellings ; never in the domestic fire, as the remains of it would
get among their food.

When a wife treats her husband with such persistent disrespect or unkind-
ness as to make him wish to get quit of her, he casts a spell over her in the
following manner. While she is asleep he cuts off a lock of her hair, and ties it
to the bone hook of his ' speax thrower,' and covers it with a coating of gum.
Early next morning he goes to a neighbouring tribe, and stays with them.
At the first great meeting of the tribes he gives the 'spear thrower' to a friend,
who sticks it upright before the camp fire every night, and when it falk over he
considers that a sign that his wife is dead. But until he is assured by a
messenger that such is the case, he will not return to his tribe. In the
meantime, as the wife has not been legally separated from her husband, she
cannot marry ; and as she is constantly subjected to the sneers and taunts of her
friends, she ultimately visits her husband, apologizes for her conduct, and brings
him home. As an earnest of reconciliation and mutual confidence the spear
thrower is broken and thrown into a water-hole.

After marriage, the women are compelled to do all the hard work of erecting

LAWS OF MARRIAGB. 37

habitations, collecting fuel and water, carrying burdens, procuring roots and
delicacies of various kinds, making baskets for cooking roots and other purposes,
preparing food, and attending to the children. The only work the men do, in
time of peace, is to hunt for opossums and large animals of various kinds, and to
make rugs and weapons. But, notwithstanding this drudgery, and the apparent
hard usage to which the women are subjected, there is no want of affection
amongst the members of a &mily.

•^•m^a^m^^^

AUSTRALIAN ABORIOINES.

1 t

CHAPTER Xn.

CHILDREN.

A WOMAN near her confinement is called a ' mosegorm/ and must stay at home,
in her husband's wuum, as much as possible. When she has occasion to quit
the wuum, any person who meets her must leave the path, and keep away
from her.

During her confinement her husband lives elsewhere; the neighbouring
wuums are temporarily deserted ; and everyone is sent away from the vicinity
except two married women, who stay with her. Should she not have a mother
to attend on her, a professional woman, ' gneein ' — ^two of whom are generally
attached to each tribe — is sent for, and compelled to nurse her and the baby till
she is able to attend to it, and to resume the performance of her domestic
duties. In return for these services the nurse is kindly treated and well fed,
and generally presented with an opossum rug. The sick woman is not assisted
in any way, and everything is left to nature. She is allowed very little solid
food for some time, and only tepid water to drink ; and, if necessary, is kept
warm with hot stones. The women rarely die in childbirth.

When newly bom an infant is not black, and the dark colour appears first
on the brow, and spreads gradually over the body. The child is not bandaged
in any way, but laid before the fire on soft, dry grass, and afterwards wrapped in
an opossum rug. It receives no nourishment of any kind for twenty-four hours,
and no medicine. If the child seem to be still-bom, the nurse repeats the
names of all her acquaintances in her own and neighbouring tribes ; and, if it
show signs of life on her mentioning one of them, it gets the name of that
person, who afterwards takes a kindly interest in it, makes it presents, and
shows it attention at the great meetings. In two or three days the husband
comes to see his wife and child, and the neighbours again occupy their usual
residences. If the infant is a boy, the nearest relative is the father ; if it is a
girl, the nearest relative is the mother.

Married women voluntarily assist each other in rearing their babies when
the mothers are unable to do so, or are in bad health. Should this not be done
voluntarily, the chief can make it compulsory.

CHILDREN. 89

Until a child is able to walk its mother seldom carries it in her arms, but
keeps it on her back under the opossum rug. The rug is worn round the
shoulders with the fur side inwards, and is fixed with a wooden pin in front.
As every woman carries on her back, outside her rug, a bag suspended from her
shoulders by a belt of kangaroo skin, a pouch is thus formed for her baby in a
fold of the rug above the bag ; and to give the bag solidity, and thus prevent
the child from slipping down, stones are sometimes carried in it, in addition to
the articles which it usually contains. When the mother wishes to remove the
child, she reaches over her shoulder, and pulls it out by the arms. She replaces
it in the same way.

To assist the child in cutting its teeth there is fastened to its wrist by a
strip of skin a kangaroo front tooth, which is used as a ' coral,' to rub its gums
with. As soon as it has teeth to masticate its food, it is fed on anything
partaken of by its parents, in addition to the maternal nourishment, which is
generally continued for two years.

Children under twelve or fourteen years of age wear no clothing of any
kind. When the family is travelling, the youngest child under two years old
is carried on the mother's back beneath her rug, occasionally in company with a
yoimg dingo. When obliged to leave its comfortable pouch to make room for
another arrival, it rides on its father's back for a year or two, with a leg over
each shoulder, and both hands holding on to his front hair. In cold weather,
the children, while sitting in the wuum, are covered with a single kangaroo skin
or a small opossum rug, thrown over their shoulders ; but when they go outside
they leave the skin or rug behind, as they prefer keeping them dry for inside
comfort.

Boys have their food regulated and restricted to certain articles, and they
are permitted to engage in fights only to the extent of picking up and returning
spears and boomerangs to their friends. Girls have for their amusement a
wooden doll covered with opossum skin, and furnished with a little basket on its
back in imitation of the mother.

Large families of children are unusual among the aborigines. However
many may be bom, rarely more than four are allowed to grow up. Five is
considered a large number to rear. Twins are as common among them as among
Europeans ; but as food is occasionally very scarce, and a large family troublesome
to move about, it is lawful and customary to destroy the weakest twin child,
irrespective of sex. It is usual also to destroy those which are malformed

40 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

Malf onnations, however, were so rare before the arrival of the white man that
no instances could be remembered. When a woman has children too rapidly
for the convenience and necessities of the parents, she makes up her mind to let
one be killed, and consults with her husband which it is to be. As the strength
of a tribe depends more on males than females, the girls are generally sacrificed.
The child is put to death and buried, or burned without ceremony ; not, however,
by its father or mother, but by relatives. No one wears mourning for it Sickly
children are never killed on accoimt of their bad health, and are allowed to die
naturally.

No attention is paid to nsevus marks on infants — which, in the aborigines
show darker in colour than the surrounding skin — as these marks are attributed
by them, not to the spells of enemies, but to frights, falls, or blows sustained by
the mother.

Mischievous and thievish children are not personally punished by the
individuals whom they may injure, as that would lead to quarrels, but the
parents are held responsible ; and, should they refuse redress, they are dealt with
according to the laws of the tribe.

Every person speaks the tribal language of the father, and must never mix
it with any other. The mother of a child is the only exception to this law, for,
in talking to it, she must use its father's language as far as she can, and not her
own. At the same time, she speaks to her husband in her own tribal language,
and he speaks to her in his; so that all conversation is carried on between
husband and wife in the same way as between an Englishman and a French-
woman, each speaking his or her own language. This very remarkable law
explains the preservation of so many distinct dialects within so limited a space,
even where there are no physical obstacles to ready and frequent communication
between the tribes. The only explanation which is given by the aborigines for
this law is, that the attempt of one tribe to speak or to intone the language of
another is a caricature of it, and is never made except in derision, with the
intention of provoking a quarrel. Since the arrival of the Europeans this law has,
to a certain extent, been disregarded, and individuals are now to be found who
can speak three distinct languages, besides their own, and also very correct
English. Yarruum Parpurr Tameen, the very intelligent chiefess of the Morpor
tribe, is an instance of this ; and she states that there are only four languages
between Oeelong and the South Australian boundary that she does not
understand.

NAMES OF PERSONS.

CHAPTER Xm.

NAUES OF FEBSONS.

Until a child is able to walk it is not distingaished by any individual name, and
is called by tiie general tenn ' puupuup.' When it learns to walk, the father
gives it a name. If the father is dead, the grandfather confers the name ; and,
failing him, the mother or nearest relative does so. The first child of either sex
is called after its father, and the second, if a daughter, after its mother. If
requested, the father will name his other children after friends, who call tJliem
' laing,' meaning ' namesake,* and who are ever afterwards kind to them. In
return, they address their godfathers by the same term. When children are not
thus called after a (liend, their names are taken from something in the
neighbourhood, such as a swamp, rivulet, waterhole, hill, or animal ; or from
some peculiarity in the child or in its parents. Qirls are sometimes named after
floweiB.

The name does not necessarily adhere to the individual during life. People
sometimes exchange names as a mark of friendship. But as this would lead to
confusion if it were done privately, it takes place only at one of the great
meetings of the tribes, when the parties are full-grown, in order that every
person may be informed of it, and may know that the chiefs and the parents
give their consent, without which the exchange would not be permitted.
The ceremony commences by the friends of each of the persons ranging them-
selves in opposite lines, with the principals in the centre facing each other, with
firebrands in their hands. The chiefs inquire into the wishes of the parties,
proclaim the names, and declare them exchanged for ever ; and the principals
then hand to each other their fire-sticks, weapons, and all other personal
property. A man who wishes thus to express his love for a little boy two or
three years old, or a woman who wishes to signify her affection for a little ffx\,
can, with the consent of tiie parents and the chief, exchange names by tying
sbips of kangaroo skin round each of their own wrists, and the wrists of the
children. These strips must remain till the transfer of rugs, personal property,
and fire-sticks takes place at the first great meeting. Women's names are not

changed by marriage; and they are always addressed and known by their
maiden names, unless they are exchanged publicly.

Personal names are rarely perpetuated, as it is believed that anyone
adopting that of a deceased person will not live long. This superstition accounts
for the great number of unmeaning names in a tribe. When a dead man or
woman is referred to, it is by the general term 'muuruukan' — 'dead person;'
but when the time of mourning has expired, they can be spoken of by name,
though still with very great unwillingness. If they need to be named by
strangers during the period of mourning, it must be in whispers. As a great
favour to the writer, references were made by name to deceased relatives ; but
this was done with so much reluctance, that in several instances the inquiry had
to be abandoned without obtaining the desired information ; and one man would
not pronounce his own name because it was the same as that of his deceased
brother. Not only is the name of a deceased person forbidden to be mentioned,
but the names of all his near relatives are disused during the period of mourning,
and they are mentioned only in general terms, as exemplified below. To call
them by their own names is considered an insult to the deceased, and frequently
leads to fighting and bloodshed.

Examples.

Chaap waurong dialect.

When a man's father dies, the
man is called ... ... Palliin

When a man's mother dies, the
man is called ... ... Palliin

When a woman's father dies,
the woman is called

When a woman's mother dies,
the woman is called

When a man's brother or sister
dies, the man is called

When a woman's brother or
sister dies, the woman is
caiieo. ... ... ...

When an uncle on father's
side dies his nephew is
called ... ... ... Palliin

Palliin kuurk

Kssp gnunnse

Easp gnunna kuurk

Knnm kopan noot dialect.

Parrapeetch
Kokastch
Parrapsdheear
Kokasheear
Kiiap mekunna

Kiiamma kunnaheear

Parrapeetch

■»-.r

NAMES OF PERSONS.

When an uncle on mother's

side dies, his nephew is

cauecL ••• •■• ••■

When an unde on father s

side dies, his niece is called Palliin kuurk
When an irncle on mother's

side dies, his niece is called PitchaB kuurk
When a male cousin dies, a

male cousin is called
When a female cousin dies, a

female cousin is called

Eurm kurm kuurk . . . Kun kun yaa

.... Parrapaeheear

. . . Taetuyaar

Gnullii y uurpeetch . . . Parrap tow'will

. . . Gnullii yuurpee kuurk. . . Parrap tow'will heear

A similar law regulates the names of animals and things after which a
deceased person had been called. Thus, if a man is called after an animal, or
place, or thing, and he dies, the animal, or place, or thing is not mentioned
during the time of mourning by any member of the deceased person's tribe,
except under another name, because it recalls the memory of the dead.

For Example : —

The crow, waa, is called narrapart.

The magpie, or piping crow, kirrsese, is called paalbaluum.

The common cockatoo, gniiyuuk, is called narrapart.

The black cockatoo, wilann, is called waang.

The grey duck, tuurbamk, is called kulkuwseser.

The gigantic crane, or native companion, kuuront, is called kuuluur

kuyaetch.
The eagle, kneeangar, is called tiiro msenk.
The turkey bustard, barrim barrim, is called tillit tilliitsh.
The ringtail opossum, weeam, is called manuungkuurt.
The dasyure, or common native cat, kuppung, is called tuUa meealeem.
The dingo, or wild dog, bumang, is called parroaetch.
T|ie kangaroo, kuuriin, is called warrakuul.
The carpet, or tiger snake, kuurang, is called killaweetch.
The black snake, mowang, is called kundareetch
Tussock grass, pamet, is called pallingii.
A swamp, yaang, is called warrumpeetch.

NAMES OF MEN.

The following are the names of men, with their meanings : —
E^wim kuunawam ... ... ' Hissing swan '

(Chief of the Eirre wnarong — 'blood-lip' — tribe, named after the noise the swans

made when he robbed their nests.)

Wombeet tuulawam... ... ... * Rotten spear '

(From the old decayed spears his father carried.)

Qnuumecheean
Fuunmuttal
Weerat kuyuut
Fundeet puulotong . . .
Teel meetch willa neung
Wittin yuurong
Yambeetch ...
Laaweet tanue
Wuromkil wuurong ...
Purteetch wirrang ween
Wol muutang
Qnunnahiniitch
Feaalkose ...
Wuruum kuurwhin . . .
Wuuro killink
Nuurtekel wing
Muurose wuulok
Tiyeer bariin
Puunmimg...
Puunbat ...
Marrohmuuk
Puulepeetch
Tuulim beem
Naaweetch...
Tumeetch puuruutch
Warrowill ...
Wombeetch puyuun ...
Wullae merrii

...

Hunting bag

Bite meat

Eel spear

Dragger out of fat

Untied eel spear

Strips of skin

Swamp weed

You eat my food

Long lip

Fight with fire-stick

Lightwood tree

Bat

Redgum tree

Long grass burning

Long waterhole

Deaf

Seed of long grass

Spear knee

Swamp — ^local name

Local name

Swamp — local name

Bald head

Behead

Swamp water

Calves with large veins

Swamp — local name

Decayed kangaroo

Stony

« _».

NAMES OF PERSONS.

Buundserang
Msemamulga
Beeak

Eum kuyang
Mirrenyarmin
Eon kon talliin

Names of men without meanings : —

Pulompuul

Earinn

Puulaheuram

Tnmbo tumbo

Peekum peekum

Tullum tullum

Mirrih'gna min

Meheaar yuluum

Eaarin

Mambupitt muuluung

Mimmalk

Leaf

Repaired shield

Name of lake

Cry of the eel

Not enough

Long tongue or boaster

MeenkilWang

Burkamukk

Tarrupiitch

Wuyuum karkorr

Tirrawuul

Bunkaruuk

Yuuruung kuyang

Yaaheetch

Tuuruumbar

Eoong

Wat pareet parrseae

NAMES OF WOMEN.
Yamiun parpur tameen ... ... * Victorious *

(Chiefess of the Morporr tribe, named by her father after defeating his enemies in a

great battle.)

Muulapuum yurong yaar
Wuuriwuuriit
Warruum ...
Peecham ...
Lserpeen tumbuur
Bareetch chumeen
Poroitchol ...
Fatuum yinheear
Eamdamaheear
Walngeetch winyong
Tartuu tameen
Meendeaar tuukuung

• . a

Strips of kangaroo sk

Banksia tree

Bandicoot

Blossom

Singing woman

Cut

Scrubby place

Hanging root basket

Upstanding

Ear

Turn round

Dark body

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

Parputeen ...

Yeetpuyeeich kamaruung

Marrokeear tung an

Portk^rsB . . .

Qnaknii neear

Eoronn

Euulem karrank

Peertob

Piik kuuruuk

Tumbuum ...

Moyuup

Nullor

Peekim

Mundamin . . .

Muinpa apuumeen

Eummomtok

Weeitcho tserinyaar

Tuppuun . . .

FuU

Breathless

Broken teeth

Knock dirt off tree

Stutter

Feather

Wattle bloom

Lake

Water weed

Native daisy

Flower (with edible root)

Drosera

Flower of the yam

Snap with mouth

Kneading

Name of bird

Playful leaves

Water lily

Names of women, without their meanings :-

Meen baabumeen
Nirrsemeetch kuuronong
Wiitpumeen
Poatpoteen
Puunameen

Luppimin nullohneung
Yerrkombeen
Luupir pumeen
Yaabuur

Kuulandarr
Buung'guse
Yatneetch pillseruung
Yillin tuupeheaar
Kuumameen

Knnning lUUnfiT

Moiprse w imgnong
Peeka

The distinction of gender between these proper names, though not recog-
nizable by the white man, is discerned at once by the aborigines.

Besides proper names, some men are nicknamed after peculiarities in their
persons, or habits, such as —

Kuunjeetch ... ... ... Blind

Kiiam mimg ... ... ... One eye

^ « •• .

NAMES OF PERSONS.

Warn mimg
Pappakupee yanmeetch
Qnuttcheep gnuttcheep
Msemg barriin
Muulpaen ...
Porrgnoma3t
Tinnang wuumpmset
Wuurk gnaato
Morrdilwuurk
Morrwhork
Tinning tinning turam

Squint eye

Hopping

Cripple leg

Crooked knee

Leg cut off below knee

Deformed ankle

Club foot

Broken arm

Arm cut off at shoulder

Arm cut off at elbow

Stout man

The nicknames of women are distinguished by the feminine affix, such

as —

Kuunjee heear
Kiiam minyaar
Warn minkgneear . .
Pappakupee yanmeheear
Gnuttcheep gnuttcheep heear . . .
Maering barring heear
Porrgnomceheear
Tinnang wuumpmseheear
Wuurkna heearong ...
Morrkilwuurk heear
Morrwhork heear
Tinning tinning turam gneear...

Blind female
One-eyed female
Squint-eyed female
Hopping female
Cripple leg female
Crooked knee female
Deformed ankle female
Club foot female
Broken arm female
Arm cut off at shoulder female
Arm cut off at elbow female
Stout female

White people are also named after their peculiarities, or after localities, such
as kuurn wimdill, ' little bottle,' from the person carrying a flask of spirits while
travelling.

Teeri yeetch beem ... ... ... Red head

Pseteritt ... ... ... ... Lapwing

(In consequence of the person having a habit of ninning like that bird.)

Meheaar kapuung ... ... ... Big nose

WuUang ... ... ... ... Wide walker

Meheaar talliin ... ... ... Loud voice

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

Tachwirring
Kuurpeen mumkilling
Konngill
Narrakebeen
Luppertan tullineann

Eat ghost

live beside waterhole

Doctor

No meaning

Speaker of native language

Dogs are generally named after their owners, and when the latter are
addressed the dogs recognize the names, and wag their tails. Other names
are —

Wimgan ...

Peechilakk...

Puunmimg...

Waameetch cheearmart

Esersereetch

Howlseluya

Earlo

Puunmsen ...

'Ear mine'

Name of swamp
Swelled chest

Hallelujah

Name of Barrukills dog

Name of swamp

SUPERSTITIONS AND DISEASES.

CHAPTER XIV.

SUPERSTITIONS AND DISEASES.

In investigating the superstitions of the aborigines, every care has been taken
to exclude any superstitioas notions which might have been impressed on their
minds since they came in contact with the white race ; and those from whom
information was obtained were fully aware of the necessity of adhering strictly
to the beliefs they entertained before they knew of the existence of Europeans.

It was ascertained that they believe in supernatural beings — celestial,
infernal, and terrestrial.

The good spirit, Pimmeheeal, is a gigantic man, living above the clouds ;
and as he is of a kindly disposition, and harms no one, he is seldom mentioned,
but always with respect. His voice, the thunder, is listened to with pleasure, as
it does good to man and beast, by bringing rain, and making grass and roots
grow for their benefit. But the aborigines say that the missionaries and
government protectora have given them a dread of Pimmeheeal ; and they are
sorry that the young people, and many of the old, are now afraid of a being who
never did any harm to their forefathers.

The bad spirit, Muuruup, sometimes called ' Wambeen neung been-been aa,'
* maker of bad-smelling smoke,' is always spoken of with fear and bated breath,
as the author of every misfortune. He visits the earth in the form of lightning,
knocking trees to pieces, setting fire to wuums, and killing people by ' striking
them on the back.' At times he assumes the form of a large ugly man,
frequenting scrubs and dense thickets ; and, although not provided with wings,
like the white man's devil, he fiits and darts from place to place with the
rapidity of lightning, is very mischievous, and hungers for the fiesh of children.
The natives are not much afraid of Muuruup in the daylight, but have a great
dread of him in the dark. They say that he employs the owls to watch and
give notice when he may pounce upon any unfortunate straggler from the camp.
Hence their hatred of owls, as birds of evil omen. When one of these birds is
heard screching or hooting, the children immediately crawl under their grass
mats. If children are troublesome at any time, they are hushed by their mother

calling out * kaka muuruup/ * Come here, devil' None of the Kuum kopan noot
tribe ever saw the Muuruup, but believe he was once seen by two natives of the
Chaap wuurong tribe at Merrang, on the Hopkins River, when that country
was first occupied with live stock ; and they described him as a huge black man,
carrying a great many spears, with a long train of snakes streaming behind him,
' like smoke from a steamboat/

The Muuruup lives deep under the ground in a place called UmmekuUeen,
and has under his command a number of inferior spirits, who are permitted
to visit the surface of the earth occasionally. No human being has ever returned
to tell what kind of place UmmekuUeen is. There is a belief, however, that
there is nothing but fire there, and that the souls of bad people get neither meat
nor drink, and are terribly knocked about by the evil spirits.

A spirit lives in the moon, called Muiu'uup neung kuum tarrong'gnat,
meaning * devil in the moon.' Children are sometimes threatened, when they are
bad, that this Muuruup will be sent for to take them to the moon.

Of terrestrial spirits there are devils, wraiths, ghosts, and witches, the
differences between them being somewhat indefinite.

There are female devils, known by the general term GnuUa gnuUa gneear.
Buurt kuuruuk is the name of one who takes the form of a black woman ' as
tall as a gum tree.' She has for a companion the dark-coloured bandicoot. If
this animal be killed and eaten by a native, he is punished by misfortunes and
by nightly visitations from Buurt kuuruuk. There is a legend that she carried
off a woman from near the mouth of the Hopkins River to her wuum on the top
of the Cape Otway mountains, and compelled her to eat raw opossums for six
moons. Various parts of the country are suppased to be haunted by these female
devils ; but none are so celebrated for their great size as those frequenting the
Cape Otway ranges. The aborigines do not believe in any devils belonging to
the sea.

Every person over four or five years of age has a spirit or ghost, which,
although dormant through life, assumes a visible but undefined form after death ;
and, for a time, haunts the spot where a corpse is interred or placed in a tree.
Although it is considered to be quite harmless, it is regarded with fear. It is said
to be seen sitting on the grave or near the body, but it sinks into the ground or
disappears if anyone approaches. As the friends of the deceased are very
unwilling to go near the place, it is seldom seen and never examined. For its
comfort a large fire is kept burning all night near the corpse. The recent custom

SUPERSTITIONS AND DISEASES. 51

of providing food for it is derided by the intelligent old aborigines, as ' white
fellow's gammon/

It is a remarkable coincidence with the superstition of the lower orders in
Europe, that the aborigines believe every adult has a wraith, or likeness of
himself, which is not visible to anyone but himself, and visible to him only before
his premature death. If he is to die from the bite of a snake, he sees his wraith
in the sun ; but in this case it appears in the form of an emu. If, in the evening,
after sunset, a person walking with a friend sees his own likeness — ' muuruup
man,' and, if a woman, * muuruup yeman,' — the friend says, * Something will
happen to you, as you have seen your wraith.* This so preys on the mind of the
individual that he falls into low spirits, which he tries to relieve by recklessness
and carelessness in battle.

After the disposal of the body of a good person, its shade walks about for
three days ; and, although it appears to people, it holds no communication with
them. Should it be seen and named by anyone during these three days, it
instantly disappears. At the expiry of three days it goes off to a beautiful
country above the clouds, abounding with kangaroo and other game, where life
will be enjoyed for ever. Friends will meet and recognize each other there ; but
there will be no marrying, as the bodies have been left on earth. Children under
four or five years of age have no souls and no future life. The shades of the
wicked wander miserably about the earth for one year after death, frightening
people, and then descend to Ummekulleen, never to return. There was a belief
current among the aborigines, that the first white men seen by them were the
embodied spirits or shades of deceased friends. Whether this belief originated
with the tribes of Port Phillip, or was transmitted from the Sydney district, it is
now impossible to ascertain ; but there is no doubt that it did exist among the
aborigines of Victoria at the time of its first occupation by the white man.

Some of the ideas described above may possibly have originated with the
white man, and been transmitted from Sydney by one tribe to another.

On the sea coast, opposite Deen Maar — now, unfortunately, called Julia
Percy Island — ^there is a haunted cave called Tarn wirring, * road of the spirits,'
which, the natives say, forms a passage between the mainland and the island,
When anyone dies in the neighbourhood, the body is wrapped in grass and buried ;
and if, afterwards, grass \a found at the mouth of the cave, it is proof that a good
spirit, called Puit puit chepetch, has removed the body and everything belonging
to it through the cave to the island, and has conveyed its spirit to the clouds ;

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

and if a meteor is seen about the same time, it is believed to be fire taken up
with it. Should fresh grass be found near the cave, when no recent burial has
taken place, it indicates that some one has been murdered, and no person will
venture near it till the grass decays or is removed.

Witches appear always in the form of an old woman, and are called
kuin'gnat yambateetch, meaning ' solitary,* or ' wandering by themselves.' No
one knows where they come from or where they go to ; and they are seldom seen
unless at great meetings. They are dressed in an old ragged kangaroo skin rug,
sewn together with rushes, and carry on their backs a worn-out basket containing
various charms, and bits of the flesh of opossums and bandicoots. They belong
to no tribe, and have no friends ; and, as everyone runs away on their approach*
they neither speak to anyone nor are spoken to. They are considered harmless.

There is a belief in prognostication of dreams. If a man dreams he will find
a swan's nest in some particular spot, he visits the place with the expectation of
finding it. If he dreams that something serious happens to him, as, for example,
that he is mortally wounded in battle, and if, afterwards, he is wounded, he says,
'I knew that this would take place, for I dreamt it;' and so deeply is he
impressed with the idea of approaching death, that he rushes wildly into the
fight. If a man is told by a friend that he had a bad dream about him, this will
make him very miserable and ill for a long time. If a dog shows agitation while
asleep, that is a sign that he dreams of hunting kangaroos, and that he will kill
one next day ; and so confident is his master in the dog's dream, that he will go
out with him the next day to help him.

The aborigines have superstitious ideas connected with certain animals*
The grey bandicoot belongs to the women, and is killed and eaten by them, but
not by the men or children. Boys are not allowed to eat any female quadruped.
When they are caught eating a female opossum, they are punished by their
parents, as it makes them peevish and discontented. The common bat belongs
to the men, who protect it against injury, even to the half-killing of their wives
for its sake. The fern owl, or large goatsucker, belongs to the women, and,
although a bird of evil omen, creating teiTor at night by its cry, it is jealously
protected by them. TS a man kills one, they are as much enraged as if it was
one of their children, and will strike him with their long poles. Children are
severely punished if they kill and eat the magpie lark, for it makes their hair
prematurely white. The shepherd's companion belongs to both men and women,
and is never killed, because it attacks snakes, and gives warning of their

SUPERSTITIONS AND DISEASES. 63

approach. The pelican and its eggs are never eaten, but only because they are
too strongly flavoured and fishy.

Eokok, the powerful owl, is a bird of evil omen, smells death in the camp,
and visits the neighbourhood of a dying person, calling * Kokok-kokok.' It is
therefore hated by men, women, and children. It is of a fierce disposition,
vigorously attacking anyone who approaches its nest ; and, as it has a strong
spur on the carpal joint of the wing, a blow from it is not pleasant. It is also
disliked because it kills opossums, flying squirrels, and small animals, the food of
the natives. The kokok builds its nest of reeds and sedges in the blackwood
tree, and lays three eggs, which are sought after and eaten.

A porcupine ant-eater coming near a dwelling is a sign that someone in it
will die before long. The cries of the banksian and white cockatoos announce
the approach of friends. An itchy nose indicates a visit from a friend.

If a person imagines that he sees the planet Venus set twice in one night, it
warns him of his death before morning. With this exception the aborigines do
not predict events from the position of the stars.

The cause of an echo is not understood, but it is supposed to be something
mysterious mocking the speaker.

The mantis belongs to the men, and no one dare kill it. Women are not
permitted to eat the flesh or eggs of the gigantic crane, or of the emu, till they
are old and greyheaded. If a baby is taken near the dead body of a gigantic
crane, it is certain to break out in sores.

Pork is generally rejected by the natives because they believe it produces
skin disease ; but, as swine were unknown before the arrival of the white men,
the idea of their flesh being unclean and unhealthy must have been impressed
on them by the first settlers, and probably as a means of protecting from
depredation their pigs, which were always allowed to run at large.

Strange spears and weapons are reluctantly touched, as it is believed they
communicate sickness, and might cause death. It was with difficulty that some
of the aborigines could be prevailed upon to take hold of spears, arrows, and
clubs from the Society Islands. When the spear or weapon of an enemy has
killed a friend, it is always burnt by the relatives of the deceased ; but those
captured in battle are kept, and used by the conquerors.

Fire caused by lightning is called * Pillsetuung mumdall gnat' — ' supernatural
fire belonging to thunder' — and is shunned, because there is a belief that the
lightning hangs about the spot, and would kill anyone going near it. However

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

much the natives may be in want of a firestick in travelling through the bush,
they will not take a light from a strange fire unless they observe the footprints
of human beings near it, indicating that it has been kindled by man. Neither
will they take a light from a funeral pyre.

There is a tradition that fire, such as could be safely used, belonged
exclusively to the crows inhabiting the Grampian Mountains ; and, as these
crows considered it of great value, they would not allow any other animal to get
a light However, a little bird called Yuuloin keear — * fire-tail wren' — observing
the crows amusing themselves by throwing firesticks about, picked up one, and
flew away with it. A hawk called Tarrakukk took the firestick from the wren,
and set the whole country on fire. From that time there have always been fires
from which lights could be obtained.

There is a superstition, called Wuurong, connected with the tracking and
killing of kangaroos. In hot weather a doctor, or other person possessed of
supernatural powers, looks for the footprints of a large kangaroo. On finding
them he follows them up, putting hot embers on them, and continues the quest for
two days, or until he tracks it to a water-hole, where he spears it. He then pre-
sents portions of the body to his nearest neighbours, and takes the head home to
his own wuum. There seems tb be no special meaning attached to this custom.

The aborigines believe that if an enemy get possession of anything that has
belonged to them — even such things as bones of animals which they have eaten,
broken weapons, feathers, portions of dress, pieces of skin, or refuse of any kind —
he can employ it as a charm to produce illness in the person to whom they belonged.
They are, therefore, very careful to bum up all rubbish or uncleanness before leaving
a camping-place. Should anything belonging to an unfriendly tribe be found at
any time, it is given to the chief, who preserves it as a means of injuring the
enemy. This wuulon, as it is called, is lent to any one of the tribe who wishes
to vent his spite against any one belonging to the imfriendly tribe. When used
as a charm, the wuulon is rubbed over with emu fat mixed with red clay, and
tied to the point of a spear-thrower, which is stuck upright in the ground before
the camp fire. The company sit round watching it, but at such a distance that
their shadows cannot fall on it. They keep chanting imprecations on the enemy
till the spear-thrower, as they say, turns round and falls down in the direction
of the tribe the wuulon belongs to. Hot ashes are then thrown in the same
direction, with hissing and curses, and wishes that disease and misfortune may
overtake their enemy.

SUPERSTITIONS AND DISEASES. 56

As a mark of affection, locks of hair are exchanged by friends, and are worn
round the neck, tied to the necklace. Should one of these be lost, most diligent
search is made for it, as it is considered very unlucky to lose or give away a
keepsake. If it be not found, the person who holds possession of the other lock
of hair is asked to undo the exchange by returning it. If this were not done,
the loser of the lock would die. So strong is this belief, that people in such
circumstances often fall into bad health, and sometimes actually die.

The aborigines had among them sorcerers and doctors, whom they believed
to possess supernatural powers. In the Kolor tribe there was a sorceress well
known in the Western district under the name of White Lady, who was the
widow of the chief, and whose supernatural influence was much dreaded by all.
As an emblem of her power, she had a long staff resembling a vaulting pole,
made of very heavy wood, and painted red. This pole, which she said was
given to her by the spirits, was carried before her by a * strong man' when she
visited her friends or attended a meeting. On occasions of ceremony, it was
dressed up with feathei-s of various colours, and surmounted by a bunch of the
webs of the wing feathers of the white cockatoo. The pole-bearer, whose name
was Weereen Euuneetch, acted also as her servant. After ushering her to the
meeting, he hid the pole at a short distance from the camp, while singing and
amusements were going on, as it was too sacred to be exposed to common
inspection. At bedtime he brought it into the circle by her dii^ection, and held it
upright before the fire, as a signal of retirement for the night. At her death the
pole was carried off by the spirits, and no one has seen it since.

In order to support her pretensions to supernatural power, she would, on
some moonlight night, leave the camp with an empty bag made of netted bark
cord, and return with it full of snakes. These she said were spirits. No one,
therefore, dare go near them or look at them. She described one as pure white,
another black ; the rest were young ones. She emptied the bag near the fire and
made them crawl around it, by pointing with a long stick, and speaking to them.
On another occasion, having left the camp for awhile on a moonlight night, she
pretended, on her return, that she had been to the moon ; and, in proof of her
visit, produced a tail of a lunar kangaroo — ^an old fur boa which she had got fi-om
the whites. Besides this boa she had a number of charms round her neck, and,
in her bag portions of the bones of animals, beads, pieces of crockery, bits of
brass and iron, and strangely-shaped stones, each having its particular spell, and
capable of producing good or evil, as suited her interests. This clever old witch

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

was very much annoyed when any white person scrutinized and exposed the
contents of her bag ; but the natives, though the more sensible of them were not
sorry to see her powers and mysterious charms ridiculed, were too much
afraid of her to smile, or join in any mirth at her expense.

White Lady was an honorary member of the teetotal society, and carried a
temperance badge suspended from her neck, which she said told her ' not to drink
spirits/ When an opportunity occurred, however, to get a drop of rum, she took
off the badge and hid it in the ground, and, when sober, put it on again. She
also had a cross suspended in the same way, which she said ' yabbered,' ' do not
tell lies,' *do not kill anybody,* 'do not steal potatoes;' but, when hunger
prompted a raid on a potato field, the cross was temporarily buried in like
manner. This cunning woman possessed such power over the minds of her tribe
that anything she fancied was at once given to her. When she died, at
E!angatong, her death was followed by the usual wailing and scratching of faces
amongst her friends during the whole night ; but, as she had been such a terror
to her tribe on account of her reputed powers for evil, there was more form
than sincerity in their professions of grief. The following day her body and all
her property, consisting of clothing, opossum rug, ornaments and spells, were
placed on a bier made of saplings, and silently carried off by the friends and
relatives, and interred in a grave two feet deep. Her head, however, and portions
of the legs and arms were buried in a cave near Mount Kolor, where she was
bom.

Every tribe has its doctor, in whose skill great confidence is reposed ; and
not without reason, for he generally prescribes sensible remedies. When these
fail, he has recourse to supernatural means and artifices of various kinds.

The following remedies arc those most commonly used. In cases of pain in one
spot the skin is scarified, and the blood allowed to flow freely. When the pain
is general, and arises from severe cold or rheumatism, a vapour bath is produced
by kindling a fire in a hole in the ground, covering it with green leaves, and
pouring water on them. The sick person is placed over this, and covered with
an opossum rug, and steamed till profuse perspiration takes place. He is then
rubbed dry with hot ashes, and ordered to keep warm. Another cure for
rheumatism is an infusion of the bark of the blackwood tree, which is first
roasted, and then infused while hot. The affected part is bathed with the hot
infusion, and bandaged with a cord spun from the fur of the flying squirrel, or
ringtail opossum, with a piece of opossum rug as a covering. Severe headaches

of long continuance, requiring strong remedies, are cured by burning off the hair
and blistering the skin of the head. Earaches are treated by pouring water on
hot stones placed in a hole in the ground, and holding the ear over the steam.
For pains in the joints, fresh skins of eels are wrapped round the place, flesh
side inwards. The same cure is very common in Scotland for a sprained wrist.
Sow thistles are eaten raw to soothe pain and induce sleep. The gum of the
eucalyptus, or common white gum tree, is a cure for toothache. It is stuffed into
the hollow of the tooth. Teeth are never extracted unless they are loose enough
to be removed by the finger and thumb. For indigestion, the small roots of the
narrow-leafed gum tree, or the bark of the acacia, are infused in hot water, and
the liquor drunk as a tonic. When a child gorges itself with food, its mother
gathers yellow leeches from underneath dry logs, and bruises them up along with
the roasted liver of kangaroo, and sow thistles, and compels it to eat the mess,
which is called kallup kallup. It acts as a strong emetic. Adults, when ill from
overfeeding, are sometimes induced to take this dose, in ignorance of its
composition ; and it affects them strongly, but beneficially. Wood ashes are
applied to wounds and cuts. Bums are covered with fat. Running sores which
are difficult to heal, are rubbed with the fat of the powerful owl, which dries
them up quickly. The fat of large grubs is used for anointing the skin of
delicate children. Women unable to nourish their newly-born infants have
their breasts bathed with lime-water, which is made by burning the shells of
fresh-water mussels and dissolving them in water. Every married woman carries
several shells^in her basket, which are commonly used as spoons.

If diseases will not yield to these ordinary remedies, the doctor invokes the
aid of spirits. Visiting his patient in the evening, and finding that the case is
beyond the reach of the ordinary remedies, the doctor goes up to the clouds after
dark, and brings down the celebrated spirit, * Wirtin Wirtin Jaawan,' who is said
to be the mate of the * good spirit, pringheeal.* When he is expected to arrive,
the women and children are sent away from the camp, and the men sit in a circle
of fifty yards in diameter, with a banksia tree in the centre. The doctor and
spirit alight on the top of the tree, and jump to the ground ' with a thud like a
kangaroo.' The spirit gives his name ; and, after the doctor has felt all over the
body of his patient, they both go up to the clouds again. It is supposed that the
patient must get well. Occasionally the doctor brings down with him the spirit
of the sick man, in the form of a doll wrapped in an opossum rug. This doll
produces a moaning noise. The sick person is placed sitting in the middle of a

TT»1 11 I 1 ■ 1^ I

AUSTRALIA ir ABORIGINES.

circle of friends, supported behind by one of them, and the doctor presses
the rug containing the doll to the patient's chest for some minutes, and then
departs.

If the sick person is a chief or a chief's wife, or of superior rank, and the
doctor, on visiting him at sunset, finds it beyond his power to remove the disease
in the usual way, he goes up to the clouds after dark, and fetches down ten
spirits. These he places at a distance of fifty yards from the sick person. He
then has a conversation with his patient, and, after kneading him all over to
ascertain the seat of the disease, he informs the spirits, and they tell him what to
do. Having received his instructions, he warms his right hand at the fire and
rubs it over the affected spot. The spirits then depart, with a croaking noise
* like the cry of the heron.' The doctor repeats the rubbing for three nights, and
then, telling the patient he will soon be well, he departs for his home, with his
followers. If, at the first meeting thereafter, his patient is cured, the doctor
receives presents of food, rugs, and weapons; but if he dies the doctor gets
nothing.

Spirits were very plentiful before the arrival of the white man. A spring
of fine water near Mount Eolor, called Lurtpii, was their favourite resort, and
they were to be found there at all times by the doctor, who alone had the power
to make them appear. He summoned them, however, only in summer time,
while the tribes were having their meetings and amusements. The men are not
much afraid of these spirits in the daytime, but the women and children are
terrified at them, and nobody runs the risk of seeing them after sunset.

Sometimes, when a korrobone has ended, the doctor of the tribe calls on
three or four female spirits to come down from the clouds and dance round the
fire ; and, when accosted, each gives its name as that of a deceased member of the
tribe. Any person may look at them, but no one except the doctor can speak to
them, and nobody dares to run away.

When the white men came to Victoria, there was one doctor of great celebrity
in the Western District, Tuurap Wameen, chief of the Mount Kolor tribe. So
celebrated was he for his supernatural powers, and for the cure of diseases, that
people of various tribes came from great distances to consult him. He could
speak many dialects. At korroborses and great meetings he was distinguished
from the common people by having his face painted red, with white streaks
under the eyes, and his brow-band adorned with a quill feather of the turkey
bustard, or with the crest of a white cockatoo. Tuurap Warneen was

SUPERSTITIONS AND DISEASES

unfortunately shot by the manager of a station near Mount Eolor ; and his
death caused much grief to all the tribes far and near.

On one occasion, when the tribe had a great meeting at a lake called ' Tarrsa
Yarr/ to the north of Mount Kolor, doubts were expressed as to his power to
summon spirits, and make them appear at mid-day. To show he could do this,
he went up to the clouds and brought down a gnulla gnulla gneear, in form of
an old woman, enveloped in an opossum rug, tied round her waist with a rope of
rushes. In order to thoroughly frighten the people, he held her tethered with a
grass rope like a wild beast, as though to prevent her chasing and hurting them.
He did not allow her to go nearer to the wuums than about fifty yards. After
exhibiting her for half an hour, he led her off. Everyone was intensely terrified
at the gnulla gnulla gneear, and the doctor found her a profitable invention, as
he received numerous presents of weapons, rugs, and food to keep her away.
When he was in want of a fresh supply, he could always command it by a threat
of another visit from the. gnulla gnulla gneear.

The doctor pretends to cure pains of every description, and makes his
patients believe — not unwillingly — that he extracts foreign substances from the
body by sucking the sore places. He actually spits out bits of bone, which he
had previously concealed in his mouth. He also, by rubbing, apparently makes
stones jump out from the affected part.

To cure toothache, a cape made of the basket rush is worn over the
shoulders and round the neck, and is laid aside when the pain is gone — its name
is weearmeetch. Another remedy is the application of a heated spear-thrower to
the cheek. The spear-thrower Is then cast away, and the toothache goes with it
in the form of a black stone, about the size of a walnut, called karriitch. Stones
of this kind are found in the old mounds on the banks of the Mount Elmu
Creek, near Darlington. The natives believe that when these stones are thrown
into the stream at a distance from their residence, they will return to the place
where they were foimd ; and as they are considered an infallible remedy for
toothache, they are carefully preserved. They are also employed to make an
enemy ill, and are thrown in the direction of the offending tribe, with a request
to punish it with toothache. If, next day, the stones are found where originally
picked up, it is believed that they have fulfilled their mission. Not far from the
spot where these stones are plentiful, there is a clump of trees called karriitch
— meaning toothache — and the natives of the locality warn their friends never
to go near it, for if they do they will be sure to get toothache. Stones of a

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

similar description are found in the sand hills on the sea coast, and are put into
a long bag made of rushes, which is fastened round the cheek. The doctor
always carries these stones in his wallet, and lends them to sick people without
fee or reward.

Sunstroke is not common, although the natives never wear any head-dress ;
but the effect of the sun's rays are known to be injurious to the brain, and to
cause death. The rays of the moon are also believed to be hui-tf ul ; and, when
the moon is looked at too long by any person, ' the devil in it makes them whirl
round, and tumble helplessly into the fire.*

The aborigines were not subject, in former times, to pulmonary complaints,
though they were very much exposed to the weather. At all seasons of the year
the men, while travelling in a strange country, slept among bushas or long grass,
often quite destitute of clothing. This was necessary to prevent surprise by
enemies, who would be attracted by the smoke of a fire. Since the introduction
of European clothing, however, they are very liable to afiections of the lungs.
The reason for this seems to be that, however much they may clothe and perspire
during the daytime, they still very generally keep up the custom of throwing off
their clothing when they go to sleep, with the exception of a kangaroo skin or an
opossum rug in cold nights, or a little dry grass as a covering in hot weather.

The aborigines have been visited on several occasions by epidemics, which
were very fatal. The first occasion which the natives remember was about the
year 1830, and the last in 1847. The very small remnant of old aborigines now
alive who escaped the first of these epidemics describe it as an irruptive fever
resembling small -pox. They called it Meen warann — * chopped root.* They have
still a very vivid recollection of its ravages, and of the great numbers cut off by
it in the Western District. In remembi-ance of it they still chant a wail called
Mallae mallaeae, which was composed in New South Wales, where the disease first
broke out, and is known to all the tribes between Sydney, Melbourne, and
Adelaide. The malady spread with rapidity from tribe to tribe, in consequence
of the infection being carried by the messengers who were sent forward to com-
municate the sad news of its ravages. It was considered to be so infectious and
deadly, that when anyone sickened and refused food, and when pustules appeared
on the body, the tribal doctor gave them up at once, and the friends deserted
them, leaving beside them in the wuum a vessel of water to drink. When they
died, the body was allowed to decay where it was ; and, long afterwards, when
all infection was supposed to be gone, and nothing left but bones, some of the

SUPERSTITIONS AND DISEASES.

relatives returned, and burned the wuum and the remains. If a mother was
affected by the disease, her child was immediately removed and given to a
female relative to rear, while the mother was left to die. The aborigines say
that the Meen warann came from the west in form of a dense mist ; and that the
chief places of mortality were round the Moyne Lagoon, and on the sand
hummocks to the east of Port Fairy.

At the last of these visitations, also, great numbers died near the sea coast, and
were buried in the hummocks at Mill's Reef, two miles east of Port Fairy. The
skeletons were exposed some years ago by the drifting of the sand, and were found
to be buried in pairs. This proves that the deaths were not then considered to
be caused by any contagious disease, else the relatives would have abandoned the
bodies, and only returned to bum the bones. It may be here said that there was
a considerable slaughter of the natives at the same place by the white men, and
the natives say that those who had escaped returned after some short time and
buried their dead ; but they did not bury these in pairs. The writer saw, about
the year 1844, an aboriginal of the Hopkins River tribe as thoroughly marked
with the small-pox as ever he saw a white man.

For scabies the natives have no cure, and they treat an infected person as
though he had the leprosy. They will not touch him ; and, although they supply
him with food and water, they remove their wuums to a distance, for fear of
infection. On the death of the person — ^for the natives say that they do die of
it — ^the body and everything near it is burned.

Scrofula is imcommon, and traces of it are seldom observable on their
persons.

Cases of iasanity are very rarely met with, but the aborigines believe that
there is more of it since the use of intoxicating liquors was introduced, and
especially since they began to disregard their laws of consanguinity in marriage.
When a case of insanity occurs, a consultation is held among the relatives ; and,
as they have a very great dread of mad people, the afflicted person is put to death.

Children bom with any deformity or defect attributable to close consan-
guinity, and likely to render them an encumbrance to their parents in their
wanderings about the country, are destroyed. In an instance of two dumb
children, which was attributed to this cause, the tribes would have put them to
death but for the British law.

CHAPTER XV.

DEATH AND BURIAL.

Dying persons, especially those dying from old age, generally express an
earnest desire to be taken to their birthplace, that they may die and be buried
there. If possible, these wishes are always complied with by the relatives and
friends. Parents will point out the spot where they were bom, so that when
they become old and infirm their children may know where they wish their
bodies to be disposed of.

When old people become infirm, and unable to accompany the tribe in its
wanderings, it is lawful and customary to kill them. The reasons for this are —
that they are a burden to the tribe, and, should any sudden attack be made by
an enemy, they are the most liable to be captured, when they would probably be
tortured and put to a lingering death. When it has been decided to kill an aged
member of the tribe, the relatives depute one of their number to carry out the
decision. The victim is strangled with a grass rope, and the body, when cold, is
burned in a large fire kindled in the neighbourhood. All his property is burned
with him except rugs, weapons, and implements. In this cremation the sons
and daughters and near relatives take part ; and two or three friends collect the
necessary firewood and attend to the fire. This custom is recognized as a
necessity. There is, therefore, no concealment practised with regard to it Very
often the poor creatures intended to be strangled cry and beg for delay when
they see preparations made for their death, but all in vain. The resolution is
always carried out.

Suicide is uncommon ; but if a native wishes to die, and cannot get any one
to kill him, he will sometimes put himself in the way of a venomous snake, that
he may be bitten by it. An instance is given of a determination to commit
suicide. A man having killed his wife while he was intoxicated, was so sorry, on
discovering what he had done, that he besought the tribe to kill him. As he
was a general favourite, no one would do it. He resolved, therefore, to starve
himself to death on the grave of his deceased wife. His friends, seeing his

DEATH AND BURIAL. 63

determination, at last sent for the tribal executioner, Pimdeet Puulotong, who
pushed a spear through him, and the body was burned.

Natural deaths are generally — but not always — attributed to the malevolence
and the spells of an enemy belonging to another tribe.

When a person of common rank dies under ordinary circumstances, and
without an enemy being blamed, the body is immediately bound, with the knees
upon the chest, and tied up with an acacia bark cord in an opossum rug. Next
day it is put between two sheets of bark, as in a coffin, and buried in a grave about
two feet deep, with the head towards the rising sun. All the ornaments, weapons,
and property of the deceased are buried with him. Stone axes are excepted, as
being too valuable to be thus disposed of, and are inherited by the next of kin.
If there is no time to dig a grave — which occasionally happens in hot weather —
or if the ground is too hard, the body is placed on a bier and removed by two
men to a distance of a mile or two. There the relatives prepare a funeral pyre,
on which the body is laid, with the head to the east. All the effects belonging to
the deceased are laid beside the body, with the exception of stone axes. Two
male relatives set fire to the pyre, and remain to attend to it till the body is
consumed. Next morning, if any bones remain, they are completely pulverized
and scattered about. When a married woman dies, and her body is burned, the
husband puis her pounded calcined bones into a little opossum-skin bag, which
he carries suspended in front of his chest until he marries again, or till the bag is
worn out, when it is burned.

When two persons die in a wuum at the same time, if they are brothers or
sisters, they are interred close together in separate graves. If they are not so
related, one of the bodies is tied with the knees to the face, and buried with the
head towards the rising sun, in a shallow hole, or in a deserted mound ; the other
is put up in a tree till nothing remains but skin and bones, when it is taken down
and burned.

The bodies of children between the ages of four and seven years are
wrapped in an opossum rug, and put in a sheet of bark rolled up into a tube.
This is pushed up into a hollow tree till the remains are quite dry, when they are
taken down and burned. The bodies of children under four years of age, who
have died a natural death, are kept a day and a night, and are then interred or
burned without any ceremony. Infants who have been put to death by their
parents, in accordance with the customs of the tribe, are burned without
ceremony.

64 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

Under ordinai-y circumstances a corpse is kept in the wuum one night ; in
very hot weather it is kept only a few hours ; and, immediately on its removal,
a large fire is kindled on the spot, and the wuum and all the materials connected
with it are burned. Even the grass and the leaves, if dry enough, are carefully
gathered and consumed.

Before the minds of the aborigines were poisoned by the superstitions of the
white people, they had not the slightest dread of the dead body of a friend, nor
had they any repugnance to remain beside it. Indeed, it often occurred that, while
awaiting the an-ival of friends from a distance, they kept watch constantly for
six days beside the corpse, and in the same wuum ; by turns sleeping and wailing,
and protecting the body from the flies by green boughs of trees. They have
their own superstition, however, connected with this watching ; for they believe
that should the corpse open its eyes and stare at any one, that person will not
live long.

The approaching death of a chief causes great excitement. Messengers are
sent to inform the neighbouring tribes, and all his relatives and friends come and
sit around him till he expires. They then commence their mourning. They
enumerate the good qualities of the deceased, and wail and lacerate their
foreheads. Messengers are sent, with their heads and faces covered with white
clay, to inform the tribes of his death, and to call them to attend his funeral
obsequies.

Immediately after his death the bones of the lower part of the leg and of
the fore-arm are extracted, cleaned with a flint knife, and placed in a basket ; the
body is tied with a bark cord, with the knees to the face, and wrapped in an
opossum rug. It is then laid in a wuum filled with smoke, and constantly
watched by friends with green boughs to keep the flies away.

When all the mourners, with their faces and heads covered with white clay,
have arrived, the body is laid on a bier formed of saplings and branches, and is
placed on a stage in the fork of a tree, high enough from the ground to be out of
the reach of wild dogs. Everyone then depaits to his own home. The adult
relatives and friends of the deceased visit the spot every few days, and weep in
silence. No children accompany them, as ' they are frightened.'

At the expiry of one moon, the relatives and the members of his own and
the neighbouring tribes come to bum the remains. The body is removed from
the tree. Elach chief, assisted by two of his men, helps to carry it, and to place
it on the funeral pyre ; while the relatives of the deceased sit in a semicircle to

JL- J J ■ ■ r ■ « ■ ' ' —^^Ff ■■ !■ |>iii».n ■■■■^i. I I ■ ■■ .1

windward of the pyre, and each tribe by itself behind them. The fire is lighted
and kept together by several men of the tribe, who remain till the body is
consumed, and till the ashes are su£Sciently cool to allow the fragments of small
bones to be gathered. These are then pounded up with a piece of wood, and put
into the small bag prepared for them. The widow of the deceased chief, by first
marriage, wears the bag of calcined bones suspended from her neck, and she also
gets the lower bones of the right arm. which she cleans and wraps in an opossum
skin. This she puts in a long basket made of rashes, and ornamented with
kangaroo teeth, emu feathers, cockatoos' crest feathers, red paint, and a lock of
hair of the deceased. These relics she carries for two years, and keeps them
under cover, with great care. She cannot marry while she carries these. Should
she resolve to be man^ied before the two years are out, she delivers the basket
and bones to her deceased husband's next widow, or widows, in succession ; failing
them, to his mother ; but should she also be dead, she gives them to his mother's
sister, if she has a family ; or, lastly, to his eldest daughter, if she is married and
has a family. If the deceased has left no such relatives, the widow ultimately
buries the bones in a deserted mound and bums the basket.

The eldest sister of the deceased chief gets the lower bones of the left arm,
and his aunts get the lower bones of the legs, which are treated in the same way.
Failing sisters and aunts, the nearest female relatives, to the degree of first
cousins, take their place. The only reason one can assign for the observance of
this custom is to induce the relatives of chiefs to keep them alive as long as
possible ; for the task of carrying dead men's bones for two years cannot be an
agreeable one.

The body of a chiefess is treated like that of a chief, and the bones are
carried about in a basket in the same way. When the body is burned, at the
termination of one moon, if the deceased was greatly beloved by her husband, he
gathers the calcined bones, pounds and puts them into a small bag made of
opossum skin, which he wears suspended in front of his chest for twelve moons.
They are then buried. Until these relics of his wife are buried he cannot marry
again. The bodies of the adult sons and daughters of chiefs are disposed of in
like fashion, and their bones carried about for the same period by their mother,
and other relatives in succession.

If a chief dies of disease which is attributed to the spell of an enemy, his
body is put up in a tree and watched all night by a dozen or more of his friends, who
conceal themselves behind a log near the body. One of them in a low tone of voice

66 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

calls on the spirits to appear. Sparks like '' lighted matches '' then come out of the
ground, followed by several spirits. The most conspicuous of these spirits
represents the person who bewitched the deceased. They then disappear for ever.
Some time ago an aboriginal man named Buckley was foimd dead near
Camperdown: his body was put up in a tree and watched. The aborigines
declared that the spirits came, but nothing was done to avenge his death.

A widower mourns for his wife for three moons. Every second night he
wails and recounts her good qualities, and lacerates his forehead with his nails till
the blood flows down his cheeks, and he covers his head and face with white clay.
He must continue to mourn and wear the white clay for other nine moons,
unless he shall succeed in taking a human life in revenge for her death. If he
cease wearing the clay before the expiry of three moons without taking a life,
his deceased wife's relatives say ' he has told a lie,' and they will attempt to
kill him. If the woman left a child, it is taken from its father and given to its
grandmother or grandfather to rear ; but if its father succeeds in taking a life,
he has a right to take it back. When the husband has had a great affection for
his wife, and is anxious to give expression to his grief, he bums himself across
the waist in three lines with a red-hot piece of bark.

A widow mourns for her husband for twelve moons. She cuts her hair
quite close, and bums her thighs with hot ashes pressed down on them with a
piece of bark, till she screams with agony. Every second night she wails and
recounts his good qualities, and lacerates her forehead till the blood flows down
her cheeks. At the same time she covers her head and face with white clay.
This she must do for three moons, on pain of death. The white clay is worn for
twelve moons. Sometimes, towards the end of the period of mourning, one or
two stripes of pale brown are painted across the nose and under the eyes, and
near the end of the time the colour is changed to red.

For the same period, and in like manner, adults mourn for a father or
mother, and parents mourn for their children if over three moons old. Children are
not allowed to paint their heads and faces, but are obliged to show their grief by
lacerating their brows and crying. While parents are mourning for their children,
they live in a separate wuum away from their friends. In their lamentations and
wailings for the dead, the aborigines always enumerate all the good qualities of
the deceased ; and they appear to mourn sincerely.

The relatives — as far as cousins — of a deceased chief must mourn for him
for twelve moons. The other members of the tribe must also mourn for

the same period ; but if an enemy has been blamed for the death, and they
succeed in killing a man of another — but not a contiguous — tribe, they at once
remove the clay and paint from their heads and faces, and their mourning is
ended. It is the same with a deceased chief ess ; but the mourning for her lasts
only six moons, and the person to be killed for her must be a woman.

The widow of a chief can return to her own tribe, but she cannot take her
children with her, as they belong to the tribe of their father. If they are left with it
by their mother, their nearest relatives are obliged to support and take care of them.

After the dead are finally disposed of, no amusements are permitted among
the relatives of the deceased for two or three days ; and if any levity is observed
among them by the next of kin, he is entitled to take the life of one of them.
Even hunting for food is not allowed until the brother or nearest male relative
grants permission.

A very strange and revolting custom is practised in connection with the
disposal of the bodies of those who have lost their lives by violence ; and this
custom has given rise to the idea that the aborigines are cannibals.

There is not the slightest doubt that the eating of human flesh is practised
by the aborigines, but only as a mark of afiectionate respect, in solemn service of
mourning for the dead. The flesh of enemies is never eaten, nor of members of
other tribes. The bodies of relatives of either sex, who have lost their lives by
violence, are alone partaken of ; and even then only if the body is not mangled,
or unhealthy, or in poor condition, or in a putrid state. The boy is divided
among the adult relatives — ^with the exception of nursing or pregnant women —
and the flesh of every part is roasted and eaten but the vitals and intestines,
which are burned with the bones. If the body be much contused, or if it have
been pierced by more than three spears, it is considered too much mangled to be
eaten. The body of a woman who has had children is not eaten. When a child
over four or five years of age is killed accidentally, or by one spear wound only,
all the relatives eat of it except the brothers and sisters. The flesh of a healthy,
fat, young woman, is considered the best ; and the palms of the hands are
considered the most delicate portions.

On remarking to the aborigines that the eating of the whole of the flesh of a
dead body by the relatives had the appearance of their making a meal of it, they
said that an ordinary-sized body afibrded to each of numerous adult relatives only
a mere tasting ; and that it was eaten with no desire to gratify or appease the
appetite, but only as a symbol of respect and regret for the dead.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER XVI.

AVENGING OF DEATH.

A DYING person, who believes that sorcery and incantations are the cause of his
illness, intimates to his friends the number of persons in the suspected tribe whom
they are to kill. Sometimes the individual who is believed to be the cause of his
illness is named by the dying person.

When the offending tribe is not otherwise revealed, the question is decide,
after the body has been put up into the tree, by watching the course taken by
the first maggot which drops from the body and crawls over the clean-swept
ground underneath. If the body has been buried, the surface of the grave is
swept and smoothed carefully ; then the first ant which crosses it indicates the
direction of the tribe which caused the death of the deceased. If possible, one of
the members of that tribe must be killed.

A consultation takes place, and when an individual is fixed upon as the cause
of the death, he receives warning that his life will be taken. If he escapes for
two moons, he is free. Immediately after the warning, a small party of the
male friends and relatives of the deceased prepare themselves by eating
sparingly for two or three days, and getting together, each for himself, a supply
of cooked food. When ready to start, they paint and disguise themselves, that
they may not be recognized by the friends of the person whom they intend to kill.
They proceed, well armed, by night to the vicinity of the residence occupied by
their intended victim. It is difficult to surprise a camp, owing to the watch-
fulness and ferocity of the dogs belonging to it. The attacking party, therefore,
form a wide circle, and gradually close round the wuum, guiding each other by
uttering cries in imitation of nocturnal animals. At the dawn of day, which is
the time of the deepest sleep with the aborigines, and when it is sufficiently light
to distinguish the person they wish to kill, they rush on their victim, drag him
out of his bed, and spear him without the slightest resistance from himself or his
friends, who, paralyzed with terror, lie perfectly still. After the departure of
the attacking party, the friends cut up the body and bum it. No reason is given
for this custom.

AVENGING OF DEATH. 69

When the person who has been named by the deceased, and who has been
warned of his intended fate, seeks safety by keeping away from his tribe, his
enemies search for him for two moons ; and, as he must hunt for food, he is
sometimes discovered. When his enemies see him, they all keep out of sight
except one man, who approaches him in a friendly way, and, in course of
conversation, directs his attention to something up a tree, or in the distance.
Being off his guard, he is suddenly knocked down. The others, who have been
watching, immediately rush on their victim, catch him by the throat, throw him
on his face, and hold him down, while one cuts open his back with a sharp
flint knife, and pulls out the kidney fat, afterwards stuffing the hole with a
tuft of grass. A piece of the fat is rolled up in grass and thrown over the
shoulder of the operator, who then seats the man against a tree with a
burning stick in his hand, and, retiring backwards with his eyes fixed on him,
picks up the fat, which he wraps in opossum skin and carries away. This
kidney fat is afterwards presented to his chief, who fixes it on his spear-
thrower, as a charm to ensure his spear going straight and fatally. After a while
the wounded man walks home, with the grass still in the wound, and, as his case
is hopeless, no effort is made to remove it, and nothing is done for him. He
walks about for a day or two, and eats his food as if nothing had happened, but
soon dies.

Sometimes the . enemy is killed by strangling. He is watched by three
or four men, who are provided with a tough rope, made of the inner bark
of the stringybark tree. A nmning noose is made on the rope; they throw
the noose over his head, and pull — one man at each end of the rope — ^till he
is choked.

Intending murderers always disguise themselves with coloured clay ; their
victim cannot, therefore, easily recognize them. But as, if he do not die
immediately, he is expected to name his murderers, he often fixes on the wrong
persons. When these are killed in retaliation, a feud is begun ; and thus there is
kept up a constant destruction of life. If the attack upon the supposed spell-
thrower should take place near a camp, and he should be killed, his murderer is
at once chased by every able-bodied man present, and, if caught, is put to death
on the spot. Every pursuer thrusts four spears into his body, and leaves them
there. His friends, who have been watching the result at a distance, wait till the
pursuers go away, and then bum the body and all the spears which were thrust
into it, and which are sometimes so numerous as to be likened to ' spines in a

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

porcupine.' The body of the supposed spell-thrower is remoTed to the camp, to be
eaten according to the custom described in the previous chapter.

This ends the feud, as life has been taken for life ; but if the murderer
should ef>cape, and should be known to the friends of the deceased, he gets notice
to appear and undergo the ordeal of spear-throwing at the first great meeting of
the tribes.

K he pay no attention to the summons, two 'strong, active men,' called
Psea^t psesets, accompanied by some friends, are ordered by the chief to visit the
camp where he is supposed to be concealed, and to arrest him. They approach
the camp about bedtime, and halt at a short distance from it One of the Preset
pseaets goes to one side of the camp, and howls in imitation of a wild dog. The
other, at the opposite side, answers him by imitating the cry of the kuurku owl.
These sounds bring the chief to the door of his wuum to listen. One of the
Paeset paesets then taps twice on a tree with his spear, or strikes two spears
together, as a signal that a friend wishes to speak to him. He then demands the
culprit ; but, as the demand is generally met by a denial of his being there, they
return to their friends, who have been waiting to hear the result K they still
believe him to be concealed in the camp, they surround it at peep of day,
stamping, and making a hideous noise, to frighten the people in the camp. In
the meantime the chief, anticipating the second visit, has very likely aided the
culprit to escape while it is dark. When the Pseaet paeaets and their friends
discover that the man is not in the camp, they freely express their anger and
disappointment ; but, without attempting to injure anyone, they start off at once
on the track of the fugitive.

The deaths of adults caused by epidemics are not avenged, nor are the
natural deaths of boys before they have beards, or of girls before entering
womanhood, or of those who have lost their lives by accident, such as drowning,
falling off trees, snake bite, &c

When the body of an adult is found with the muscles of the back of the
neek ' slack,' and marks of blows on the breast, it is concluded that death has
been produced by strokes from a heavy club of quandong wood, called ' yuul
marrang,' ' wild hand.' A club of this kind is kept among the associated tribes
for the express purpose of killing criminals, and, as the quandong does not grow
in the Western District, this club is borrowed by the chiefs around when needed,
and especially when they visit tribes with the expectation of avenging death.
When a man has been killed by this club, the body is brought home and examined

iVH^VSOTM

AVENGING OF DEATH. 71

by his relatives, and disposed of according to the laws regulating mourning and
the eating of human flesh, which are described in the previous chapter.

The friends examine the footprints of the murderers, and follow them
sufficiently far to indicate the direction from which they came. If they are
unable to follow up the track, they console themselves by expressing the wish
that some evil may befall the murderer. If they have been able to follow up the
track, they return home and collect as many men as possible, and make an attack
on the suspected tribe ; and, should they succeed in killing a member of the
tribe — even though it be a woman, or only a child — they are satisfied, and the
two tribes are again friendly. But if one of an innocent tribe should be killed,
retaliation is sought, and probably another life sacrificed.

When a number of men have been implicated in a murder or other crime,
they disguise their track by walking backwards in line over ground likely to
retain the impressions of their feet ; and they hide their numbers by stepping
in each other's footprints. This they continue as long as they are in country
belonging to another tribe. When lying in wait for an enemy they lay their
ears near the ground, but not touching it, and listen attentively. They can hear
the sound of footsteps on the soft sward at a distance of one hundred yards ;
those of a horse at two or three hundred.

Friendship is seldom allowed to interfere with the sacred duty of revenge.
A man would consider it his bounden duty to kill his most intimate friend for
the purpose of avenging a brother's death, and would do so without the slightest
hesitation. But if an intimate friend should be killed, he would leave revenge
to the relatives of the deceased. In all cases, if they fail to secure the guilty
person, they consider it their duty to kill one of his relatives, however ignorant
he may have been of the crime.

This law holding every member of the tribe responsible for the conduct of
each individual in the tribe is doubtless founded upon the necessities of the
case, and entails upon each one the duty of controlling the violent passions, not
only of himself, but also of the others.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER XVII.

GREAT MEETINGS.

Great meetings are held periodically in summer, by agreement among the
friendly tribes. But any two chiefs have the power of sending messengers and
commanding the attendance of the tribes at an appointed time and place, in order
that matters of dispute may be arranged. Sometimes, instead of dispatching
men to give notice of a meeting, a signal smoke is raised by setting fire to a wide
circle of long grass in a dry swamp. This causes the smoke to ascend in a
remarkable spiral form, which is seen from a great distance. The summons thus
given is strictly attended to. Or, if there is not a suitable swamp, a hollow tree
is stuffed with dry bark and leaves, and set on fire. Or, a fire is made on a hill
top.

Each tribe, on its arrival, erects its wuums, and lights its fires in front of
them, on the side of the camp next their own country. When all are assembled,
proceedings commence after sunset, or before sunrise next morning. As soon as
the families of the different tribes are seated in rows on the ground, the chief of
each tribe, accompanied by the other chiefs, walks along and taps everyone on
the head with a piece of bark, asking the name of his tribe, his personal name,
and his class. If anything of importance has to be discussed, a circular open
space, of one hundred or one hundred and fifty yards in diameter, is reserved in
the centre of the camp, into which the chiefs advance by turns, and speak in a
loud voice, that everyone may hear what is said.

When a chief has a matter of great importance to settle, and desires the
advice and assistance of friendly tribes, he dispatches two messengers to the
nearest chief with a message-stick. This message-stick is a piece of wood about
six inches long and one inch in diameter, with five or six sides, one of these
indicating by notches the number of tribes to be summoned, and the others the
number of men required from each. The messengers are not allowed to explain
the business of the proposed meeting. Immediately on a chief receiving the
message-stick, he sends for his principal men, who pass their hands down the
stick and ascertain the number of men required from the tribe. They then

GREAT MEETINGS, 73

decide who are to be sent. The stick is next forwarded by messengers from their
tribe to the nearest chief, who sends it on to the next, and so on until all are
summoned. The most distant tribe starts first, and, joining the others in
succession, all arrive in a body at the camp of the chief who sent for them. They
are accompanied by their wives, but not by children or by very old persons. In
the evening, when the children of the tribe and the women have gone to bed, the
chief who convened the meeting gives his reason for doing so. After consultation,
the chiefs decide what is to be done ; each chief tells his people what is required,
and all retire for the night.

The spear-thrower is also used as a message-stick ; but, when so employed,
it is specially marked to indicate its purpose. The writer has in his possession a
specimen which was made by Kaawirn Kuunawarn, the chief of the Kime
Wuurong tribe, and which Ls a fac-siviile of a summons issued by him long ago to
three tribes, to meet his own tribe at a favourite swamp and camping-place called
Kuunawarn, on the east side of the River Hopkins, and represents their approach
to his camp. In the centre of the flat side of the spear-thrower is a carved circle
of about an inch and a quarter in diameter, which represents the camp of
Kaawirn Kuunawarn. Near it are three notches on the edge of the stick, and
two lines and two dots on the flat side, pointing to the camp, which form his
signature ; and, at the hooked end of the stick, three lines in shape of the letter
Z indicate his presence. Four rows of notches, extending from each end of the
stick to the camp, indicate the numbers of individuals of the two tribes
approaching from opposite directions. On the other side of the spear-thrower,
in the centre, there are two circles of a smaller size, and pointing to them is a
small, rudely carved figure of a hand — the word for ' hand,' munya, also means
a * meeting.' From each end of the stick six lines of notches represent the
numbers of individuals of other two tribes approaching from opposite directions.
As each notch indicates an individual, there must have been a thousand at this
meeting. Kaawirn Kuunawarn was then a very young chief ; and as he is now
a man considerably over sixty years of age, the meeting must have been held
immediately previous to the occupation of the country by the white man. Of
those who attended it there are only four individuals now alive, viz., Kaawirn
Kuunawarn, Jamie Ware, Jim Crow, and Helen Crow.

Occasionally, a distant and distrustful tribe will send two men to test the
friendship of a meeting. On arrival, they announce the name of their tribe and
their own names, and then retire to the wuum of an acquaintance. He ties a

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

feather to the point of one of their spears, and fixes the spear upright at his door.
When the attention of a chief is called to this, he transfers the spear to the
middle of the camp. Two or three men come and draw their hands down it, and
retire to their wuurns ; no objection having been made, the chief takes the spear
to the two strangers and lays it down beside them, remarking that it belongs to
them, and is returned as a sign of friendship and welcome. If the friendship of
their tribe is not desired, a hint Ls given to them to go away. Three or four
young women at sunset will pretend to go for water, carrying pieces of
smouldering bark hidden in their buckets. These pieces of bark they give to
the strangers to make their fire on their journey home. The men immediately
set off, carrying the pieces of lighted bark under their rugs till they are out of
danger of pursuit.

Messengers are attached to every tribe, and are selected for their intelligence
and their ability as linguists. They are employed to convey information from
one tribe to another, such as the time and place of great meetings, koiToborses,
marriages, and burials, and also of proposed battles ; for, if one tribe intends to
attack another, due notice is always honourably given. Ambuscades are
proceedings adopted by civilized warriors. As the office of messenger is of very
great importance, the pei'sons filling it are considered sacred while on duty ; very
much as an ambassador, herald, or bearer of a flag of truce is treated among
civilized nations.

To distinguish them from spies or enemies, they generally travel two
together, and they are painted in accordance with the nature of the information
which they carry. When the information is about a great meeting, a korrobone,
a marriage, or a fight, their faces are painted with red and white stripes across
the cheeks and nose. When the information relates to a death, their heads, faces,
and hands, their arms up to the elbows, and their feet and legs up to the knees,
are painted with white clay. Thus the appearance of the messengers announces
the natui^e of their news before they come to the camp. If their appearance
indicates a death, lamentation and disfigurement begin immediately. On arriving
at the camp they sit down without speaking, apparently unobserved ; and, after
a little time, one of them delivers the message in a short speech with intoned
voice.

There are also teachers attached to each tribe, whose duty is to instruct the
young in the use of weapons, and in other needful information. Sometimes a
messenger is also a teacher.

GKEAT MEETINGS. 75

The fine old chief of the Spring Creek tribe, Weeratt Kuyuut — * Eel spear/
occasionally called Morpor, after his tribe and country, and believed to have been
upwards of eighty years of age — ^was both a messenger and a teacher. As a
messenger he generally travelled by himself. In his younger days he was a great
warrior, and in more mature years was considered such an honourable, impai*tial
man, that he was selected on all occasions as a referee in the settlement of disputes.
When a great battle was to be fought, he was sent for by the contending chiefs,
who placed him in a safe position to see fair play. In reward for his services he
returned home laden with presents of opossum rugs, weapons, and ornaments.

As a teacher he taught the young people the names of the favourite planets
and constellations, as indications of the seasons. For example, when Canopus is
a very little above the horizon in the east at daybreak, the season for emu eggs
has come ; when the Pleiades are visible in the east an hour before sunrise, the
time for visiting friends and neighbouring tribes is at hand; if some distant
locality requires to be visited at night, it can be reached by following a particular
star. He taught them also the names of localities, mountain ranges, and lakes,
and the directions of the neighbouring tribes.

As Weeratt Kuyuut had the reputation of being an expert warrior, besides
being well known as a messenger, he travelled unmolested all over the country
between the Grampian ranges and the sea, and between the rivers Leigh and
Wannon ; and was received and treated everywhere with kindness and hospitality.

In his travels towarc**^ Geelong — which at that time was the name of the bay
and not of the land — he heaivA uckley as a chief who had 'died and jumped
up whitefellow,' and who on thi*» ccount was treated with marked consideration
and respect. There is little doubt that Buckley owed J ^o Juis idea, which

was very likely encouraged by him to enable him to retv inf ence over the

tribes with which he mingled.

Among the associated tribes a public executioner was employed to put
criminals to death when ordered by the chiefs to do so. The natives have a
vivid recollection of a bloodthirsty savage named Pundeet Puulotong, * dragger
out of kidney fat,' who acted in that capacity, and who was so fond of doing
cruel deeds that he solicited the office himself. He killed his victims with a club
called yuul marrang, ' wild hand,' made of quandong wood, and kept for the
purpose.

Pundeet Puulotong was a great fighting man. On killing one of a neigh-
bouring tribe, he would show himself to the relatives of his victim, and challenge

them to spear him. None, however, dared to meddle with him. On asking
members of his tribe how many lives he had destroyed, the reply was that he
took one at almost every meeting. When he was seen approaching a meeting
the women wept, as they were certain ho would put someone to death before he
left If he received a scratch, or had blood drawn from him, he would kill
some person in revenge. The old savage grew quite blind and helpless in his old
age, and the natives say, that, instead of putting him to death, which they could
easily have done, they left his blindness to punish him for his innumerable murders
and cruelties.

Persons accused of wrong-doing get one month's notice to appear before the
assembled tribes and be tried, on pain of being outlawed and killed. When a
man has been charged with an offence, he goes to the meeting armed with two
war spears, a flat light shield, and a boomerang. If he is found guilty of a
private wrong he is painted white, and — along with his brother or near male
relative, who stands beside him as his second, with a heavy shield, a liangle, and
a boomerang — he is placed opposite to the injured person and his friends, who
sometimes number twenty warriors. These range themselves at a distance of
fifty yards from him, and each individual throws four or five gneerin spears and
two boomerangs at him simultaneously, 'like a shower.* If he succeeds in
warding them off, his second hands him his heavy shield, and he is attacked
singly by his enemies, who deliver each one blow with a liangle. As blood must
be spilt to satisfy the injured party, the trial ends on his being hit. After the
wound has been dressed, all shake hands and are good friends. If the accused
person refuses to appear and be tried, he is outlawed, and may be killed ; and his
brother or nearest male relative is held responsible, and must submit to be
attacked with boomerangs. If it turns out that the man was innocent, the
relatives have a right to retaliate on the family of the accuser on the first
opportimity.

Should a person, through bad conduct, become a constant anxiety and
trouble to the tribe, a consultation is held, and he is put to death. Liars are
detested; and should anyone, through lying, get others into trouble, he is
punished with the boomerang and liangle. Women and young people, for the
same fault, are beaten with a stick.

Long ago the Bung'andsetch natives, who inhabited the Mount Gambier
district, were looked upon as wild blacks and very malevolent, for they sent
lightning and rain to injure the associated tribes. In retaliation, the latter

OREAT MEETINGS. 77

challenged the Bung'andseich natives to fight at C!oleraine ; but, as they never
could get them to stand and give battle, they chased them to their own country.
According to the account of a native who accompanied his father on such
occasions, the fires of the associated tribes at the Wannon falls, ' Tuunda beean,'
were like the lights of Melbourne at night.

Quarrels between tribes are sometimes settled by single combat between the
chiefs, and the result is accepted as final. At other times disputes are decided by
combat between equal numbers of warriors, painted with red clay and dressed in
war costume ; but real fighting seldom takes place, unless the women rouse the
anger of the men and urge them to come to blows. Even then it rarely results
in a general fight, but comes to single combats between warriors of each side ;
who step into the arena, taunt one another, exchange blows with the liangle,
and wrestle together. The first wound ends the combat. This is often followed
by an encoimter between the women, who begin by scolding, and rouse each other
to fury, tearing each other s hair, and striking one another with their yam-sticks
or muurong poles. There is no interference by the men, however severely their
wives may punish each other. Both men and women, when quarrelling, pace
about, tossing up the dust with their toes, stamping, and making a hissing noise
like * ishew,' or * eeshwuur.' Every license is allowed to the tongue. They wish
each other all kinds of evil in the coarsest and most violent language. The
mildest imprecations are such as — ' May your teeth project, and your eyes squint
and be closed with small pox ; ' ' May you lose your hair and be completely bald ; '
' May you have a deformed nose ; ' ' May you break your neck and become a
skeleton, for you should have died long ago ; ' and ' May many assist in putting
you to death/ Words failing to produce the desired effect, they will spit in each
other's faces.

Sometimes a fight takes the form of a tournament or friendly trial of skill
in the use of the boomerang and shield. Ten or twelve warriors, painted with
white stripes across the cheeks and nose, and armed with shields and boomerangs,
are met by an equal number at a distance of about twenty paces. Elach
individual has a right to throw his boomerang at anyone on the other side, and
steps out of the rank into the intervening space to do so. The opposite party
take their turn, and so on alternately, until someone is hit, or all are satisfied.
Every warrior has a boy to look after his boomerang, which, on striking a shield,
flies up and falls at a considerable distance. As the boomerang is thrown with
great force, it requires very great dexterity and quick sight to ward off such an

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

erratic weapon, and affords a fine opportunity for displaying the remarkable
activity of the aborigines. This activity is, no doubt, considerably roused by
fear of the severe cut which is inflicted by the boomerang. Mourners are not
allowed to join in these tournaments, as it would be considered disrespectful to
the dead. Women and children are generally kept at a safe distance. The
chiefs and aged warriora stand by to see fair play, and to stop the proceedings
when they think they have gone far enough.

At the periodical great meetings trading is carried on by the exchange of
articles peculiar to distant parts of the country. A favourite place of meeting
for the purpose of barter is a hill called Noorat, near Terang. In that locality
the forest kangaroos are plentiful, and the skins of the young ones found there
are considered superior to all others for making rugs. The aborigines from the
Geelong district bring the best stones for making axes, and a kind of wattle gum
celebrated for its adhesiveness. This Greelong gum is so useful in fixing the
handles of stone axes and the splinters of flint in spears, and for cementing the
joints of bark buckets, that it is carried in large lumps all over the Western
District. Greenstone for axes is obtained also from a quarry on Spring Creek,
near Goodwood ; and sandstone for grinding them is got from the salt creek near
Lake Boloke. Obsidian or volcanic glass, for scraping and polishing weapons, is
found near Dunkeld. The Wimmera coimtry supplies the maleen saplings, found
in the mallee scrub, for making spears. The Cape Otway forest supplies the
wood for the bimdit spears, and the grass-tree stalk for forming the butt piece of
the light spear, and for producing fire : also a red day, found on the sea coast,
which is used as a paint, being first burned and then mixed with water, and laid
on with a brush formed of the cone of the banksia while in fiower by cutting off
its long stamens and pistils. Marine shells from the mouth of the Hopkins River,
and freshwater mussel shells, are also articles of exchange.

Attendance at those great meetings is compulsory on all. As an instance of
the obedience paid to the usual summons, a very faithful native, who had
charge of a fiock of sheep at Eangatong, gave notice that he had received a
message directing him to attend a meeting at Mount Rouse, whenever he saw the
signal smoke, or a reflection in the sky of a fire in that direction. As there was
at that time a very great scarcity of shepherds, in consequence of the rush to the
goldfields, permission to go was refused. Some days afterwards the signal was
seen. Next morning Gnaweeth was away, leaving his flock in the fold. Having
thus broken his engagement, he considered he had forfeited all claim to payment

GREAT MEETINGS.

for the work which he had before faithfully performed ; and, therefore, deposited
at the back door of the house a bundle containing his clothing, blankets, gun, and
every other article that had been given to him for his long services. He gave up
all his property rather than disobey the summons. Many months passed over ere
he was heard of ; and it was only after repeated invitations and assurances of
welcome that he returned. He then explained, that, had he neglected the
summons to attend the meeting, his life would have been forfeited.

When it had been agreed by the chiefs of the associated tribes to have a
grand battue, messengers were sent all round to invite everybody to join. As
each tribe left its own country, it spread out in line, and all united to form a
circle of fifteen or twenty miles in diameter. By this means the kangaroos and
emus were enclosed, in order to be driven to an appointed place — usually on
Muston's Creek, a few miles from its junction with the River Hopkins. To this
place the old people, women, and children of the several tribes had previously
gone, and were there encamped. At a fixed time the circle was perfected by
arranging the men so that they stood about two hundred yards apaH. The circle
then began to contract. As they drew near to the central camp both young and
old joined them, and formed a line too compact to allow the escape of the game ;
which, frightened and confused with the yells and shouting all aroimd, were
easily killed with clubs and spears. In the evening a grand feast and korroborse
ended the day's sport. Next morning the game was fairly divided, and each
tribe started homewards, with the usual * wuwuurk, wuwuurk,' farewell,
farewell.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

CHAPTER XVIII.

AMUSEMENTS.

The leading amusement of the Australian aborigines is the karweann, or
korroborae, which somewhat resembles pantomime, and consists of music, dancing,
and acting.

Little can be said in favour of the aboriginal music The airs are
monotonous and doleful, and there is no such thing as harmony. Men and
women join in singing. The women commence, each one accompanying her
voice with regular beats of the open hand on a rolled-up opossum rug, which
sometimes contains shells, to produce a jingling sound; the men strike in with
their voices and with their music sticks. These sticks are made of hard wood,
and are about nine inches long and an inch and a half in diameter, rounded, and
tapering at each end to a point. The one Ls held stationary, and is struck with
the other. The sound produced is clear and musical, and can be heard at a great
distance.

Many songs having appropriate airs are universally known. Very often
complimentary or descriptive songs are composed on the instant, and are sung to
well-known airs, the whole company joining in the chorus. A lament called
* Mallff3 makea),' composed in New South Wales in commemoration of the ravages
of small-pox, is known all over the Australian colonies, and is sung in a doleful
strain, accompanied with groans and imitations of a dying person. The following
is a song in the Chaap wuurong language, with its translation. It is said to have
been composed in the neighbourhood of Sydney by one of the aborigines of that
country, and to have been translated into the different languag&s as it became
known. In singing it the last two lines are repeated three times.

CHUULTUU WILL'YUU.

Chuul'yuu Will'yuu

Wallaa gnoneae.

OhillsB binnie aa gna

Kinuuaa gnuuraa joeaa,

GhisBbaa gnuui4UL

KiireegirrsB, kim^rraB, kirrtegirne,

Leeaa gnaa.

AMUSEMENTS. 81

THE PORCUPINE.

Porcupine spikes
Bum like heat of fire.
Someone pinching me
When I am up high.
With affection like a sister.
Grinning, grinning, grinning,
Teeth mine.

When a korroborae is held, all are dressed in their best attire. The chiefs
are painted red over and under the eyes and on the cheeks ; a twisted band of
the tuan squirrel fur surrounds the head ; in this band, over the right temple, is
stuck a plume made of the webs of a swan s dark quill feather, which are tied
to the barrel of a long white quill feather from the swan's wing ; in the hair are
fastened several incisor teeth of the large kangaroo ; and the tail of a wild dog
hangs from the hair down the back ; the arms are adorned with armlets of
tuan fur rope. The common men wear round the head a plaited band about two
inches broad, made of the inner bark of the stringy-bark tree, coloured red;
over this band is a thick rope of ring-tailed opassum skin with its fur outside;
and in the band, above the right temple, is stuck a white quill feather of the
swan, with its webs torn half way down, so as to flutter in the wind. Both
chiefs and common men wear necklaces. The usual necklace is formed of from
eighty to one hundred kangaroo teeth, tied by their roots to a skin cord. This
necklace hangs loosely round the neck, and displays the teeth diverging towards
the shoulders and breast. Another kind of necklace is composed of short pieces
of reeds strung in eight or ten rows on bark cords. A third kind of necklace is
formed of numerous threads spun from opossum fur. The usual apron is worn,
with the addition of an upright tuft of emu neck feathers fastened to the belt
behind, and somewhat resembling the tail of a cock«

The women wear the usual opossum rug, and have their heads bound with a
plaited bark band and an opossum skin rope. A few kangaroo teeth are
fastened among their back hair. Above each ear, and projecting beyond the
forehead, is a thin piece of wood with various coloured feathers tied to the end
of it. Over the forehead there is stuck in the brow band a bunch of white
cockatoo crest feathers. A short piece of reed is worn in the cartilage of the
nose, and flowers in the slits of the ears. They also wear reed or kangaroo teeth

82 A USTRALIA N ABORIGINES.

necklaces, and anklets of green leaves. The wives of chiefs are distinguished
by two red stripes across the cheeks.

Both men and women are ornamented by cicatrices — ^which are made when
they come of age — on the chest, back, and upper parts of the arms, but never on
the neck or face. These cicatrices are of a darker hue than the skin, and vary
in length from half an inch to an inch. They are arranged in lines and figures
according to the taste or the custom of the tribe. The operator cuts through the
skin with a flint knife, and rubs the wounds with green grass. This irritates
the flesh and causes it to rise above the skin. By repeated rubbings, the flesh
rises permanently, and the wounds are allowed to heal. About the same age,
nearly every person has the cartilage of the nose pierced to admit some
ornament. The hole is made with the pointed bone of the hind leg of the
kangaroo, which is pushed through and left for a week. A short tube, made of
the large wing bone of the swan, is then introduced to keep the hole open, and
is turned round occasionally while the nose is kept moist by holding the face
over a vapour bath, produced by pouiing water over hot stones. When the
wound is quite healed, the ring is removed. On occasions of ceremony, a reed
about eighteen inches long is pushed through the opening and worn as an.
ornament.

Before the korroborse commences — which is immediately after sunset — large
quantities of dry bark, branches, and leaves are collected, and the young people
are oi-dered to light the fire and attend to it. The men and well-grown boys
retire to prepare themselves for the dance. They paint their bodies and limbs
with white stripes, in such a manner as to give them the appeamnce of human
skeletons ; and they tie round their ancles a number of leafy twigs, which touch
the ground, and make a rustling noise as they move. Each dancer wears the
reed ornament in his nose. When they stand in a row these reeds have the
appearance of a continuous line.

The women do not join in the dance, but sit in a half -circle behind the fire,
and sing, accompanying their song with the sound of beating on opossum rugs, as
described under the head of music. Some of the men stand beside the fire,
beating time with the music sticks.

After the music has begun, one of the dancers emerges from the darkness
into the open ground, so as just to be seen ; and, with a stamp, sets himself with
arms extended, and legs wide apart and quivering, his feet shuffling in time to
the music, and the twigs round his ankles rustling at each movement. He

AMUSEMENTS. 83

remains thus for a few seconds, and, turning round suddenly, disappears in the
darkness with a rustling sound. Another dancer takes his place, and goes
through the same movements, and disappears in the same way. Then two or
three come forward, and dance in a line, and disappear in the darkness. At
length all the dancers are seen in a row, quivering and making a great rustling in
time to the music, and advancing nearer and nearer to the fire until they come
quite close, when a simultaneous loud groan is suddenly given, and the dance is
over. The bright light of the fire shining on the white stripes of the dancers
against a pitch-dark background, produces a very striking effect. The different
tribes dance by turns ; they never mingle.

The interludes between the dances are filled up by the buffoonery and
jesting of one or two clowns, called * chipperuuks,' chosen for their powers of
humour, ready wit, and repartee. These clowns do not perform altogether
voluntarily, owing to the manner in which they are treated previous to the
korroborse. They are caught by the ordei-s of the chiefs, and are compelled to
live apart in a separate wuum, without any covering to keep out the cold, but
are supplied with plenty of food. The hair of the chipperuuk is cropped off* both
sides of his head, which are plastered with white clay, leaving a crest of hair
along the ridge like the hog-mane of a horse. A stripe of white paint extends
from the top of the brow down the nose, mouth, chin, and neck to the waist ; and
the same behind, from the crown of the head down the spine ; another stripe
extends down the inside of each leg, terminating in an arrow-point above the
ankles. The arms are encircled with three white stripes between the shoulder
and wrist. He wears the usual apron and the tail of emu feathers. The
chipperuuk enters the circle between the dances, and amuses the people with
jokes, and with ludicrous movements in imitation of the gambols of emus, native
companions^ and other animals. Sometimes he puts on a mask formed of a
kangaroo pouch, painted white, and having holes for the eyes, nose, and mouth.
These are pulled over the head and face, and are often used to frighten children
when they misbehave. After the amusements are finished, the chipperuuks visit
each wuum, with a bark torch, and a basket to receive presents of food, which
are liberally bestowed.

It is now almost impossible to ascertain whether or not the korroboraes held
among the tribes referred to, previous to the advent of the Europeans, were
attended with indecencies ; but the aborigines now alive — ^and many of them
are very truthful and intelligent — declare that there was nothing indecent

1 I . y^^^

84 A U8TRALIAN A BORIGINES.

permitted, and that when anything contrary to strict propriety was attempted, it
was instantly stopped, and the offenders reprimanded, and threatened with
punishment if jt were repeated.

Since the aborigines have been gathered together under the immediate care
of Government officials, and other protectors, the korroborse is discountenanced ;
and, as little or nothing in the form of amusement is substituted, the weary
monotony, restraint, and discipline of these tutelary establishments have a very
depressing effect on the minds and health of the natives, and impel them to seek
relief in the indulgence of intoxicating drinks. And who can blame them ?

Another amusement, called ' Tarratt ' in the Euum kopan noot language,
and ' Wittchim ' in the Chaap wuurong and Peek whuurong languages, consists
in stalking a feather, in imitation of hunting an emu. The feather is tied to the
end of a long stick, which is held by a man in the centre of a large circle of
natives. A man, who has dressed himself in korroborse costume, enters the circle
with shield and boomerang, and moves round the circle for fifteen or twenty
minutes with his eye upon the feather, now crouching, and then running, in
imitation of stalking game, and finishes by stooping and touching the feather.
His place is taken by another, and so on, until four or five competitors have gone
through the same movements. The ceremony is conducted with so much
gravity, that if a spectator should laugh, or in any way ridicule the actor, the
latter would be entitled to throw his boomerang at him with impunity. The
chiefs then decide who has performed best, and they present him with the
feather. In the evening, after several korroboras dances have been gone through,
the winner of the feather, who has kept out of sight, comes into the circle in
korroborse costume, and by order of the chiefs repeats his movements round the
feather. He then presents it to the other competitors in the game, out of
compliment, and with a view to remove any feeling of jealousy.

Games are held usually after the great meetings and korroborses. Wrestling
is a favourite game, but is never practised in anger. Women and children are not
allowed to be present The game is commenced by a man who considers himself
to be a good wrestler challenging any one of his own or another tribe. His
challenge being accepted, the wrestlers rub their hands, chests, and backs with
wood ashes, to prevent their hold from slipping ; they then clasp each other and
struggle, but do not trip with their feet, as that is not considered a fair test of
strength. After one of them has been thrown three times, he retires. Other two
men then engage, and so on. When all competitors have had a trial, the

AMUSEMENTS. 85

conquerors are matched ; and the last couple decide the championship. The event
is followed by a pix)miscuous wrestling, and the game terminates with shouting,
just as among white people.

One of the favourite games is football, in which fifty, or as many as one
hundred players engage at a time. The ball is about the size of an orange, and
is made of opossum-skin, with the fur side outwards. It is filled with pounded
charcoal, which gives solidity without much increase of weight, and is tied hard
round and round with kangaroo sinews. The players are divided into two sides
and ranged in opposing lines, which are always of a different 'class' — white
cockatoo against black cockatoo, quail against snake, &c. Each side endeavours
to keep possession of the ball, which is tossed a short distance by hand, and then
kicked in any direction. The side which kicks it oftencst and furthest gains the
game. The person who sends it highest is considered the best player, and has
the honour of burying it in the ground till required next day.

The sport is concluded with a shout of applause, and the best player is
complimented on his skill. This game, which is somewhat similar to the white
man's game of football, is very rough ; but as the players are barefooted and
naked, they do not hurt each other so much as the white people do ; nor is the
fact of an aborigine being a good football player considered to entitle him to assist
in making laws for the tribe to which he belongs.

The throwing of spears at a mark is a common amusement. Toung people
engage in the pastime with toy spears. A number of boys will arrange
themselves in a line : one of the party will trundle swiftly along the ground,
about ten yards in front of them, a circular piece of thick bark about a foot in
diameter, and, as it passes them, each tries to hit it with his toy spear. They
amuse themselves also with throwing wands, fern stalks, and rushes at objects,
and at each other.

The toy boomerang is much lighter and more acute in the imgle than the
war boomerang, and has a peculiar rounding of one of its sides, which has the effect
of making it rise in the air when thrown along the ground, and return to the
thrower when its impetus has been expended. It requires much skill, and study
of the wind, to throw it aright. On dark nights this boomerang will sometimes
be lighted at one end and thrown into the air, with an effect very like fireworks.
This boomerang is also thrown into flocks of ducks, parrots, and small birds,
among which it commits great havoc^-occasionally cutting off their heads as with
a knife.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

The wusB whuuitch is also used as a toy. It is a tapering wand about two
feet long, with a pear-shaped knob on the thick end. It is held by the small end,
whirled round the head, and projected with force along the ground, where it skips
for a considerable distance. It is also used for throwing at birds. This toy is
used in the games after great meetings. Like football, it is played by opposing
classes — kuurokeetch against kirrtuuk, kappatch against kartpserup, &c. — and
the award is given to those who throw it to the greatest distance.

WEAPONS.

CHAPTER XIX.

WEAPONS.

The spear is the chief and most formidable weapon amongst the aborigines.
There are seven kinds of spears, each of which is used for a special purpose. The
longest and heaviest are the war spears, which are about nine feet long, and made
of ironbark saplings reduced to a uniform thickness. They are variously named
from the way in which they are pointed. The ' tuulowam ' has a smooth point.
The ' tungung'gil ' is barbed on one side for six inches from the point. The
' wurokiigil ' is jagged for six inches on each side of the point, with sharp splinters
of flint or volcanic glass, fixed in grooves with the same kind of cement which is
employed to fix the handles of stone axes. The hunting spear, ' narmall,' is about
seven feet long, and is made of a peeled ti-tree sapling, with a smooth, sharp
point ; to balance the weapon it has a fixed buttpiece formed of the stalk of the
grass tree, about two feet long, and with a hole in the pith in its end to receive
the hook of the spear-thrower ; but, as the hook of the spear-thrower would soon
destroy the light grass tree, a piece of hard wood is inserted in the end, and
secured with a lashing of kangaroo sinew. Although the narmall is chiefly used
for killing game, it is the first spear thrown in fighting, as it can be sent to a
greater distance than the heavy war spears, which are only used in close quarters.

The spear-thrower is a piece of wood about two feet and a half long, and
three-quarters of an inch thick. It is two or three inches broad in the middle,
and tapers off into a handle at one end and a hook at the other. Its object is to
lengthen the arm, as it were, and at the same time balance the spear by bringing
the hand nearer its centre. The hook of the spear-thrower is put into the hole
in the end of the hunting-spear, and the other end is grasped with the hand,
which also holds the spear above it with the finger and thumb. With this
instrument a spear is sent to a much greater distance than without it.

The 'gnirrin ' spear is made of a strong reed, about five feet long, with a
sharp point of ironbark wood, and is used only for throwing at criminals, as
mentioned in the chapter on great meetings. The eel spear is formed of a peeled
ti-tree sapling, of the thickness of a little finger and about seven feet long, pointed

with the leg bone of the emu, or with the small bone of the hind leg of the
large kangaroo ground to a long, sharp point, and lashed to the shaft with the
tail sinews of the kangaroo. The spear called * bundit * — which name means
* bite * — is made of a very rare, heavy wood from the Cape Otway mountains,
and Is so valuable that it is never used in fighting or hunting, but only as an
ornament. It is given as a present in token of friendship, or exchanged for
fancy maleen speai's from the interior.

Spears are warded off with the light shield, which is a thin, oblong, concave
piece of wood about two and a half feet long, nine inches broad in the centre,
and tapering towards the ends. It has a handle in the middle of the hollow side,
which is grasped by the hand when in use, and the convex side is ornamented
with the usual diagonal cross lines.

The aborigines never heard of poisoned spears, or the use of poison for the
destruction of life.

The liangle is a heavy, formidable weapon, about two and a half feet long,
with a sharp-pointed bend, nine inches in length, projecting at a right angle. It
is used in fighting at close quarters ; and the blows are warded off* by the heavy
shield, which is a strong piece of triangular wood, three feet long by five or six
inches broad, tapering to a point at each end ; with a hole in the centre, lined
with opossum skin, for the left hand. In grappling, the shields are thrown away,
and the combatants deliver their blows on each other's backs with the sharp point
of the liangle, by reaching over their shoulders. The liangle is not ornamented
in any way, but the front of the shield is covered with the usual diagonal
lines.

There are several kinds of clubs, varying in size from a walking-stick, which
the natives term a ' companion,' up to one of a formidable size, called a wuse
whuitch, which is always made of heavy wood, and is about two feet and a half
long, with a broad almond-shaped end, about a foot long, teiminating in a sharp
point. The war boomerang is much heavier and more obtuse in the angle than
the toy boomerang, and on being thrown it does not return. The natives
generally carry a weapon resembling a war boomerang, but longer and heavier,
and somewhat like a scimitar in shape. It is used as a scimitar.

ANIMALS. 89

CHAPTER XX.

ANIBiALS.

The dingo — the wild dog of Australia — deservedly holds the first place in the
estimation of the aborigines. Previous to the advent of the white man, though
every wuum had its pack of dogs, they were so very rare in their wild
state — at least in the inhabited parts of the country — ^that one ' would
not be seen in many days' travel.' This scarcity is attributed by the
aborigines to the want of food. They were usually bred in a domesticated
state, and no puppies were ever destroyed. Wild young ones also were caught
•and domesticated. The dogs were trained to guard the wuums, which they did
by growling and snarling. Dingoes never bark. As they would not sleep or
take shelter under the roof of their master, a separate place was generally erected
for them. In watching they were vigilant and fierce. They would fly at the
throats of visitors ; and strangers had often to take refuge from them by climbing
into a tree. They were also trained to hunt, which was their principal use.
They were active and skilful in killing kangaroos, and seldom got cut with the
powerful hind toes of these animals. When they killed one, they yelped to let
their master know where they were. Some well-trained dogs would even
come home and lead their owners to the dead game. In some of the mountainous
parts of Victoria, but especially in the Otway ranges, the dingoes were so very
numerous and fierce, and himted in such large packs, that the natives were
afraid to venture among them, and often had to take refuge in trees. Since the
introduction of the European dog the dingo is not used, notwithstanding its
superiority in several respects to the former, which is preferred on account of its
affectionate and social disposition.

The forest kangaroo is generally hunted by stalking, and is killed with the
hunting spear. If the kangaroo is grazing on open ground, where there is no
cover to conceal the hunter, he makes a circular shield of leafy branches, about
two or three feet in diameter, with a small hole in the centre to look through ;
and, with this in front, he crawls towards the kangaroo while its head is down,
remains motionless if it looks up, and, when he has got within throwing distance,

AVSTHALIAN ABORIGINES.

transfixes it with a spear which he has dragged after him between his toes.
The brush and wallaby kangaroos, unlike the foresters, frequent scrubby valleys
and patches of brushwood, and are hunted with dogs and spears.

The common opossum supplies the aborigines with one of their principal
articles of food, and the skin of this animal is indispensable for clothing. It
lives in holes in the trunks of trees, and also in the ground and among rocks.
Before the occupation of the country by the white man, opossums were only to
be found in the large forest trees ; and they were so scarce that the hunter
required to go in search of them early in the morning, before the dew was off
the grass, and track them to the trees, which were then marked and afterwards
visited during the day. Now, since the conmion opossums have become
numerous, in consequence of the destruction of animals of prey by the settlers,
the hunter does not look for their tracks among the grass, but examines the
bark of the trees ; and, if recently-made scratches are visible on it, he immediately
prepares to swarm up the bole. It may be seventy or one hundred feet in
height without a branch, but he ascends without difficulty, by cutting deep
notches in the thick bark with his axe. In these notches he inserts his fingers
and his toes, and climbs with such skill and care that very few instances of
accident are known. On reaching the hole where the opossum has its nest, he
introduces a long wand and pokes the opossum till it comes out He then seizes
it by the tidl, knocks its head against the tree, and throws it down. Occasionally
several opossums occupy one cavity. When it is too deep for the wand to reach
them, a hole is cut in the trunk of the. tree opposite their nest.

The ring-tailed opossum — so the aborigines say — formerly made its nest in
the holes of trees; but, since the common kind has increased so greatly in
numbers, they have taken possession of the holes, and compelled the ring-tails to
build covered nests in low trees and scrub, somewhat similar to those of the
European magpie and squirrel. In corroboration of the change in the habits of
the ring-tail opossum, the writer may state that he has observed their nests
in both situations, in low shrubs and also in hollow stumps of trees. As a
further proof of this, the aborigines have no name for the nest of the ring-tail
opossum when it is built in a bush.

«^ The wombat, being a nocturnal animal, cannot be caught by daylight ; and,
being a deep burrower, cannot be got by digging, except where the ground is
soft. The burrow sometimes extends a long distance ; but, as it is large enough
to admit a man, the hunter crawls into it till he reaches the animal — which is

ANIMALS. 91

harmless — and then taps on the roof to let his friend above ground know its
position ; a hole is then sunk« and the wombat dragged out. Should the burrow
be under a layer of rock, the hunter lies quietly above its mouth, and,
when the wombat comes out after sunset to feed, he jumps into the hole and
intercepts the frightened animal on its retreat to its den. The flesh of a fat
wombat is considered very good to eat. No use is made of the skin. |
— The bear, or ' sloth bear of Australia,* forms a substantial article of food ;
and it is easily discovered by the hunter, as it does not hide itself in holes, but
sits all day long in the fork of a tree. On a native ascending the tree, it
gradually climbs for safety to the top of a branch so slender that it bends with
its weight. As the climber dare not venture so far, he cuts the limb, and with it
sends the bear to the ground. But, as nature appears to have given tree-climbing
animals immunity from injury from falls of even hundreds of feet, the bear
immediately scrambles up the nearest tree, unless someone is ready to secure it.
No use is made of the skin of the bear. |

,^ The emu, the turkey bustard, and the gigantic crane are stalked by means
of a screen made of a bunch of plants held in front of the hunter. The plant
used is the shepherd's purse, and a bunch of it is indispensable to every hunter
on the open country, where branches of trees are not easily got. The hunter,
concealed from view behind this screen, creeps up towards the game, and carries
exposed to view as a lure a blue-headed wren, whicli is tied alive to the point of
a long wand, and made to flutter. When the game approaches to seize the bait,
it is killed with a waddy ; or it is caught with a noose fixed on the point of the
wand, which the hunter slips over its head while it is irymg to catch the
wren. I

The turkey bustard is sometimes killed without stalking, as it has a habit,
when anyone approaches, of lying down and concealing itself among long grass,
like the grouse and partridge. In this way the hunter gets near enough to kill
it with a waddy. In the breeding season no respect is paid to birds hatching.
When a turkey's nest is discovered, the great object of the hunter is to secure the
mother as well as the eggs ; and, for that purpose, he suspends a limb of a tree
across the nest, supported at one end with a short stick, to which a long string is
attached. This string reaches to a hole in the ground, which the hunter digs,
and in which he sits, covered with bushes and dry grass. When the turkey '
returns to her nest, and seats herself in it, the string is pulled, and she is crushed
by the log.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

^ Emus are frequently run down with dogs. They are sometimes trapped,
during the dry weather, by digging a hole in a nearly dried-up swamp, where
the birds are in the habit of drinking. The hole is about twenty feet in diameter,
and made very muddy and soft, with a little water in the centre. When the
birds wade in to drink, they get bogged, and are easily captured. K not actually
smothered, they are very much exhausted with struggling. This trap, if at a ^
distance from the camp, is visited every two or three days to remove the birds.^
The feathers are highly prized for making ornaments, the fat for anointing the
body and hair, and the flesh for food. Emu is considered the greatest delicacy.
It is eaten, however, only by the men and grey-haired women ; young women
and children are not allowed to partake of it. No reason is given for this rule.
When the time for the emu to lay her eggs has arrived — which is marked, as has
been elsewhere observed, by the star Canopus appearing a little above the horizon
in the east at daybreak — every member of a tribe must return home, and no eggs
must be taken from the groimds of a neighbouring tribe. If any person is caught
trespassing and stealing the eggs, he or she can be put to death on the spot. The
aborigines say that the emu is very ready to desert her nest, and if she observes
yellow leeches crawling over her eggs before she lajrs the usual number, she
immediately commences a new one, which accounts for many abandoned nests
with only two or three eggs in them, instead of the usual dozen. The first egg
of the emu is called ' purtse wuuchuup,' meaning * youngest,' because it is not only
the smallest but the last to hatch, and is always at the bottom of the nest,
covered by the others. The eggs are considered a great treat, and are cooked in
hot ashes.

The aborigines have a tradition respecting the existence at one time of some
very large birds, which were incapable of flight, and resembled emus. They
lived long ago, when the volcanic hills were in a state of eruption. The
native name for them is ' meeheeruung parrinmair — * big emu,' and they are
described, hyperbolically, as so large that their ' heads were as high as the hills,'
and so formidable that a kick from one of them would kill a man. These birds
were much feared on account of their extraordinary courage, strength, and speed
of foot. When one was seen, two of the bravest men of the tribe were ordered
to kill i**' -^ ^t^y dared not attack it on foot, they provided themselves with a
great many spears, and climbed up a tree ; and when the bird came to look at
them, they speared it from above. The last specimen of this extinct bird was
seen near the site of Hamilton. In all probability, skeletons will be some day

ANIMALS. 93

found, corroborating the statements of the aborigines with regard to this bird,
which seems to have resembled the gigantic moa of New Zealand.

Swans are killed in marshes, by the hunter wading among the tall reeds and
sedges, and knocking the birds on the head with a waddy. When the nuUore
blossoms, the swans commence laying. The eggs are generally eaten raw,
especially by the men while wading in the cold swamps, as they believe, an
uncooked egg keeps them warm. The penalty for robbing a swan's nest in a
marsh belonging to a neighbouring tribe is a severe beating. Ducks and the
smaller waterfowl are captured among the reeds and sedges with a noose on the
point of a long wand. The hunter approaches them under the concealment of a
bunch of leaves, and slips the noose over their heads, and draws them towards
him quietly, so as not to disturb the others.

In summer, when the long grass in the mkrshes is dry enough to bum, it is
set on fire in order to attract birds in search of food, which is exposed by the
destruction of the cover ; and, as the smoke makes them stupid, even the wary
crow is captured when hungry. Sometimes a waterhole is surrounded with a
brush fence, in which an opening is left. Near this opening a small bower is
made, in which the hunter sits ; and, when the birds come to drink, he nooses
them while passing. Pigeons are caught in great numbers in this way ; and, as
they come regularly to drink at sunset, the hunter has not long to wait for them.
The quail is captured during the breeding season only, for then it is readily
attracted by imitating the call of its mate ; and the himter, concealed by a bush
shield and provided with the long wand and noose, has no difficulty in catching
it among the long grass. Small birds are killed with a long, sharp-pointed wand
by boys, who lie in thickets and attract them by imitating their cries. When a
bird alights on a bush above their heads, they gently push up the wand and
suddenly transfix the animal.

The eagle is hated on account of its readiness to attack young children.
The natives mention an instance of a baby having been carried off by one, while
crawling outside a wuum near the spot where the village of Caramut now stands.
On the discovery of an eagle's nest — which is always built on the top of a high
tree — the natives wait the departure of the old birds, and, while one man watches
for their return, the other climbs up and digs a hole through the bottom of the
nest, and removes the eggs. If it contains young birds, too strong to be handled,
he sets fire to the nest with a lighted stick, which he carries between his teeth.
This so terrifies them that they jump out, and fall to the ground. While the old

birds are present no native will venture up to their nest, for a blow from their
wing would make him lose his hold, and death would be the consequence.

Fish are caught in various ways, but the idea of a hook and line never
appears to have occurred to the natives of the Western District. Large fresh-
water fish are taken by tying a bunch of worms, with cord made of the inner
bark of the prickly acacia, to the end of a long supple wand like a fishing-rod.
The bait is dipped into the pool or stream, and, when swallowed by the fish, it is
pulled up quickly before the fish can disgorge it. Fishing baskets, about eight
or ten feet long, made of rushes in the form of a drag-net, are drawn through
the water by two persons. Various kinds of fish are thus captured. The small
fish, ' tarropatt,' and others of a similar description, are caught in a rivulet whiqh
runs into Lake Colongulac, near Camperdown, by damming it up with stones,
and placing a basket in a gap of the dam. The women and children go up the
stream and drive the fish down ; and, when the basket is full, it is emptied into
holes dug in the ground to prevent them escaping. The fish thus caught are
quickly cooked by spreading them on hot embers raked out of the fire, and are
lifted with slips of bark and eaten hot.

Eels are prized by the aborigines as an article of food above all other fish.
They are captured in great numbers by building stone barriers across rapid
streams, and diverting the current through an opening into a funnel-mouthed
basket pipe, three or four feet long, two inches in diameter, and closed at the
lower end. When the streams extend over the marshes in time of fiood, clay
embankments, two to three feet high, and sometimes three to four hundred yards
in length, are built across them, and the current is confined to narrow openings
in which the pipe baskets are placed. The eels, proceeding down the stream in
the beginning of the winter floods, go headforemost into the pipes, and do not
attempt to turn back. Lake Boloke is the most celebrated place in the Western
Districts for the fine quality and abundance of its eels ; and, when the autumn
rains induce these fish to leave the lake and to go down the river to the sea, the
aborigines gather there from great distances. Each tribe has allotted to it a
portion of the stream, now known as the Salt Creek ; and the usual stone barrier
is built by each family, with the eel basket in the opening. Large numbers are
caught during the fishing season. For a month or two the banks of the Salt
Creek presented the appearance of a village all the way from Tuureen Tuureen,
the outlet of the lake, to its junction with the Hopkins. The Boloke tribe
claims the country round the lake, and both sides of the river, as far down as

ANIMALS. 95

Hexham, and consequently has the exclusive right to the fish. No other tribe
can catch them without permission, which is generally granted, except to
unfriendly tribes from a distance, whose attempts to take the eels by foi*ce have
often led to quarrels and bloodshed. Spearing eels in marshes and muddy ponds
is a favourite amusement. Armed with two eel-spears, the fisher wades about,
sometimes in water up to his waist, probing the weeds and mud, at the same time
gently feeling with his toes. On discovering an eel under his feet, he transfixes
it with one spear pushed between his toes, and then with another, and by
twisting both together he prevents its escape, and raises it to the surface. He
then crushes its head with his teeth, and strings it on a kangaroo sinew tied to
his waist. In instances where old men have very few or bad teeth, it is amusing
to see them worrying the heads, while the tails of the eels are wriggling and
twisting round their necks. If the marsh is shallow, the eel can be seen
swimming in the water. It is followed to its hole in the ground. The fisher
probes the spot with an eel-spear, and, feeling that he has transfixed the eel, he
treads in with his heel a roimd portion of the mud and weeds, lifts the sod to the
surface of the water, and removes the eel. Sometimes two spears are needed
to secure the fish. In summer, when the swamps are quite dry on the surface,
but moist underneath, eels are discovered by their air-holes, and are dug up.

For night fishing in deep waterholes, a stage is formed of limbs of trees,
grass, and earth, projecting three or four feet from the bank, and close to the
surface of the water. A fire is lighted on the bank, or a torch of dry bark
held aloft, both to attract the fish and give light. The fisher, lying on his face,
spies the fish through a hole in the middle of the stage, and either spears or
catches them with his hand. In shallow lakes and lagoons fish are caught during
very dark nights with torch and spear. The torch is made of dried ti-tree twigs,
tied in a bimdle. The fishers wade through the water in line, each with a light
in one hand and a spear in the other. Fish of various kinds are attracted by the
light, and are speared in great numbers.

Crayfish and crabs are caught by wading into the sea, and allowing them to
lay hold of the big toe, which is moved about as a bait. The fisher then reaches
down and seizes the animal by the back, pulls off its claws, and puts it into a
basket, which is slung across his shoulders. Freshwater mussels are found in
the rivers. When the water beetle is seen swimming on the surface of the water
in great numbers, it is a sign that there are ' plenty of mussels there.' Hence
the water beetle is called the 'mother of mussels.' Tortoises abound in the

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

River Hopkins. The aborigines believe that thunder causes them to come out of
the water and lay their eggs. These they deposit in the sand, and cover with a
layer of soft mud, about the size of the mouth of a tea cup. This indicates their
position to the fisher, who digs them up with a stick. They are roasted in hot
ashes, and are considered very good eating.

Snakes are very much dreaded by the aborigines, who, from their primitive
habits, are peculiarly exposed to danger from these reptiles. Only two instances,
however, of death from snake-bite are known to the present generation of the
tribes mentioned in this book ; and there is no recollection of any death of a
child from this cause. There are eight kinds of snake, including boas, most of
which are venomous ; and their poison is considered to be just as virulent when
they are in a semi-torpid state as when they are in full activity. There is only
one variety — the carpet or tiger snake — which will attack a man without
provocation, and this is the most deadly of all the Victorian snakes. The death-
adder of the interior of Australia, whose bite is said to kill a large dog in fifteen
minutes, is unknown in the Western District of Victoria. On the Mount
Elephant Plains there is a small kind of snake, called ' gnullin gnullin,' which is
about eighteen inches long, and one-third of an inch in diameter, of uniform
thickness, and terminating abruptly at the tail. It resembles the English
blind-worm, and, like it, is harmless. With the exception of this and the boas,
the bite of any of the snakes will produce temporary indisposition. When,
therefore, a person is bitten by a snake, and has not been able to discern the
species to which it belongs, he is made to look at the sun, and, if he see an emu
in it, the case is considered hopeless : he has seen his spectre, and must shortly
die. If nothing be seen in the sun, there is hope of recovery. The only remedy
used is rubbing the woimd with fat. They have no idea of sucking the wound,
or scarifying it. They have a very correct idea of the nature of snake-bite, for
they believe that the poison is contained in a bag behind the eye, and is
projected into the wound through a hollow in the fang. They say that one
poisonous snake can kill another.

Boa snakes are not so plentiful as the others. There are two kinds, a larger
and a smaller. Of the larger kind, individuals have been killed ten feet long.
They are of a dark mottled leaden colour, and have small heads, with large teeth.
The smaller kind is the more dangerous of the two. It will attack a human
being readily and unprovoked. When it has laid hold of its victim, it cannot
easily be removed. It winds itself tightly round the body until it reaches the

ANIMALS.

crown of the head, and then waves its head to and fro. When irritated, or
when calling to its mate, it emits a sound like ' kse, kse, kie.' It is the only
snake that makes any sound. Pundeet Puulotong said, that, when he was a little
boy, a boa snake attacked a man at the Salt Creek, and squeezed his neck so
severely that he died the same day. The boy saw the reptile spring on its victim,
but was afraid to go near it, and ran home to tell his friends, who came too late to
assist the man. He was dead, and the snake was gone. Near Mount Bouse two
men were attacked by a boa, which sprang on one of them and wound itself
round his body ; the other was too frightened to help his companion, and kept at
a distance. The snake, on reaching his head, ' whistled' and brought its mate,
which also wound itself round the man. He, knowing the habits of the boa,
remained quite still. The other man then ran for assistanca The friends came,
but only to watch ; knowing that the boas, if disturbed, would probably bite the
man as well as squeeze him, and, if let alone, might leave their victim alone.
After a while they did so, but the man had been nearly frightened to death.

At Eangatong, an aboriginal was attacked by a boa, which got up his leg,
underneath his blue shirt as far as his belt, and began to squeeze him. He threw
himself on the ground, and rolled backwards and forwards till it released him.
When he came to the house at Eitngatong and told the story, it was at first
discredited ; but on examining the dead snake and the marks of the struggle, and
knowing the thoroughly reliable character of the man — ^who was blue with fright,
and scarcely able to walk — there was no longer room to doubt of the truth of his
statement. Long previous to this occurrence the natives had often pointed to a
stony rise, and said that there a snake had seized and squeezed a man ; but the
story had been misbelieved. This later occurrence, coming more under the
cognizance of the white people, obtained credit for the former statements, and
showed that the boas of Victoria will attack human beings, and are dangerous.

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES

CHAPTER XXI.

METEOROLOGY AND ASTRONOMY.

Great reliance is placed by the natives on certain signs, as indicating a change
in the weather ; and, even when a white person might not observe symptoms of
an approaching storm, the natives are made aware of it by signs well known to
them. They notice the appearance of the sim, moon, stars, and clouds, the
cries and movements of animals, &c. A bright sunrise prognosticates fine
weather ; a red sunrise, rain ; a red sunset, heat next day ; a halo round
the sun, fine weather ; a bright moon, fine weather ; the old moon in the
arms of the new, rain; the new moon lying on its back, dry weather;
a halo round the moon, rain ; a rainbow in the morning, fine weather ; a
rainbow in the evening, bad weather ; a rainbow during rain, clearing up ;
when mosquitoes and gnats are very troublesome, rain is expected ; when the
cicada sings at night, there will be a hot wind next day. The arrival of the
swift, which is a migratory bird, indicates bad weather. The whistle of the black
jay, the chirp of the little green frog, the creak of the cricket, and the cry of the
magpie lark indicate bad weather ; wet weather is more likely to come after full
moon. It is a sign of heat and fine weather when the eagle amuses itself by
towering to an immense height, turning its head suddenly down, and descending
vertically, with great force and with closed wings, till near the earth, then
opening them and sweeping upwards with half -closed wings to the same height.
This movement it repeats again and again, for a long time, without exertion and
with apparent pleasure. The aborigines call this movement ' warroweean,' and
always expect warm weather to follow it.

They believe that, in dry weather, if any influential person take water into
his mouth and blow it towards the setting sun, saying, ' Come down, rain,' the
wind will blow and the rain will pour for three days. When they wish for rain
to make the grass grow at any particular place, they dig up the root of the
convolvulus, called ' tarruuk,' and throw it in the direction of the place, saying,
* Qo and make the grass grow there !'

Although the knowledge of the heavenly bodies possessed by the natives

METEOROLOGY AND ASTRONOMY.

may not entitle it to be dignified by the name of astronomical science, it greatly
exceeds that of most white people. Of such importance is a knowledge of the
stars to the aborigines in their night journeys, and of their positions denoting the
particular seasons of the year, that astronomy is considered one of* the principal
branches of education* Among the tribes between the rivers Leigh and Glenelg,
it is taught by men selected for their intelligence and information. The
following list was obtained from Weerat Kuyuut, the sagacious old chief of the
Moporr tribe, and from his very intelligent daughter, Yarrum Parpur Tameen,
and her husband, Wombeet Tuulawam : —

The sun is called ' timg,' meaning ' light,' and is of the feminine gender.

The moon, ' meeheaarong kuurtaruung,' meaning ' hip,' is masculine.

The new moon, ' taaruuk neung,' is masculine.

The larger stars are called ' kakii timg,' ' sisters of the sun,' and are feminine.

The smaller stars, ' narweetch msering,' ' star earth.'

The milky way, ' bamk,' ' big river.'

The coal sack of the ancient mariners — that dark space in the milky way
near the constellation of the Southern Cross — ^is called 'torong,' a fabulous
animal, said to live in waterholes and lakes, known by the name of bunyip, and
80 like a horse that the natives on first seeing a horse took it for a bunyip, and
would not venture near it. By some tribes the coal sack is supposed to be a
waterhole ; and celestial aborigines, represented by the large stars around it, are
said to have come from the south end of the milky way, and to have chased the
smaller stars into it, where they are now engaged in spearing them.

The larger Magellanic cloud, 'kuum kuuronn,' 'male native companion,' or
' gigantic crane.'

The smaller Magellanic cloud, ' gnserang kuuronn,' ' female native companion.'

Jupiter, ' Burtit tuung timg,' * strike the sun ' — as it is often seen near it at
midday — feminine.

Venus, * Wang'uul,' * twinkle,' feminine ; also * Paapee neowee,' * mother of the
sun.'

Canopus, ' Waa,' * crow ' — ^masculine.

Sinus, or the dog star, ' Gneeangar,' ' eagle ' — masculine.

Antares, ' Butt kuee tuukuung,' ' big stomach ' — masculine. The two stars
near Antares, one on each side, are his wives, and the three stars underneath are
called ' kuukuu narranuung,' ' nearly a grandfather.' The glow-worm took its
light from Butt kuee tuukuung.

100

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

Stars in tail of Scorpio, ' Kummim bieetch/ ' one sitting on the back of the
other s neck ' — masculine.

Pleiades are called * kuurokeheear,' ' flock of cockatoos/ by the Kuum kopan
noot tribe, and are feminine. The Pirt kopan noot tribe have no general name
for the Pleiades ; but there is a tradition that the stars in it were a queen called
Qneeanggar; and her six attendants ; and, that, a long time ago, the star Canopus —
' Waa,* ' crow * — fell in love with the queen, but was so unsuccessful in gaining her
affections that he determined to get possession of her by stratagem. Shortly
after her refusal to become his wife, he discovered by some means that the queen
and her six attendants were going in search of white grubs, of which they were
very fond. On hearing of this, * Waa * at once conceived the idea of transforming
himself into a grub ; and in this form he bored into the stem of a tree where he
was cei*tain to be observed by the queen and her servants. He was not long in
his hiding-place before he was discovered by one of them, who thrust into the
hole a small wooden hook, which women generally use for extracting grubs. He
broke the point of the hook. He did the same with those of the other five
attendants. The queen then approached, and introduced a beautiful bone hook
into the hole. He knew that this hook was hers ; he therefore allowed himself
to be drawn out, and immediately assumed the form of a giant, and ran off with
her from her attendants. Ever since the loss of the queen there have been only
six stars in the Pleiades, representing her six servants.

Some doubt having been expressed by friends to whom the manuscript was
shown with regard to the authenticity of this story, which shows a very
remarkable coincidence with tales of Grecian mythology, the strictest inquiry has
been made through Mr. William Goodall, the superintendent of the Framlingham
Aboriginal Station ; and the result of this inquiry has been to confirm the story,
and to show that it is well known in the Western District, and, with some
variation, in South Australia also.

The three stars in the belt of Orion are called ' Euppiheear ' and are the
sisters of Sirius, who always follows them.

A yellowish star in the constellation of Orion is called * Kuupartakil ; ' and
another, of a red colour, is called * Moroitch,* ' fire ' — masculine.

Southern Crass, * Kunkun Tuuromballank,' 'knot or tie* — masculine.

Centauri, the pointers, ' Tuulirmp,* * magpie larks ' — masculine.

Mars, * Parrupum ' — masculine.

Fomelhaut, * Buunjill * — masculine.

METEOROLOGY AND ASTRONOMY. 101

Hydra, * BapTTukill/ is a great hunter of kangaroo rats. On his right, and a
little above him, are two stars — ^the rat, and his dog 'Karlok;' above these
again are four stars, f oiming a log ; underneath are four other stars, one of which
is his light, and three form his arm. The dog chases the rat into the log ;
Bamikill takes it out, devours it, and disappears below the horizon. Hydra is of
great service to the aborigines in their night journeys, enabling them to judge the
time of the night and the course to be taken in travelling.

A comet, ' Puurt Kuumuuk,' believed to be a great spirit.

A meteor, * GnummsB waar,' * deformity.'

The crepuscular arch in the west in the morning is called * KuUat,' ' peep-
of -day.'

The upper crepuscular arch in the east at sunset is called ' Kuurokeheear*
puuron,' * white cockatoo twilight.'

The under arch, * Eappiheear puuron,* ' black cockatoo twilight.' The
natives say this arch comes from the constellation Orion.

The crepuscular rays in the west after sunset are called ' rushes of the sun.'

The Aurora Australis, ' Puse buae,' * ashes.*

For the names of the cardinal points of the compass, and of the various winds,
see the vocabulary at the end of the book.

The aborigines appear to be well acquainted with the effects of earthquakes.
Besides one which they say rent the ground and formed * Taap heear ' — a
waterhole in Spring Creek, near Minjah House — they have a vivid recollection of
another which occurred about forty years ago. Puulompuul, who described it,
was a little boy when it occurred. Three tribes were encamped on the lower
Hopkins River, and were holding a korroborse after sunset ; they had their fires
lighted round a waterhole, and were in the midst of their dancing, when a
strange soimd, ' like the galloping of horses,* approached from the north-west,
accompanied with a violent shaking of the ground, which, according to
Puulompuul, 'ran about and pushed up blackfellows,' and was immediately
followed by a hurricane. This may have been the same earthquake which upset
one of Major Mitchell's drays while his party was encamped between the Hopkins
and Geelong.

Some names of places indicate the existence of heat in the ground at a
former period ; but no tradition exists of any of the old craters, so numerous in
the Western District, ever having thrown out smoke or ashes, with the exception
of *Bo'ok,' a hill near the town of Mortlake. An intelligent aboriginal

—^

102

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

distinctly remembers his grandfather speaking of fire coming out of Bo'ok when
he was a young man. When some of the volcanic bombs found among the
scoriae at the foot of Mount Leura were shown to an intelligent Colac native,
he said they were like stones which their forefathers told them had been thrown
out of the hill by the action of fire.

NATIVE MOUNDS.

103

CHAPTER XXII.

NATIVE MOUNDS.

Native mounds, so common all over the country, are called ' pok yuu ' by the
Chaa wuurong tribe ; * po'ok,' by the Euum kopan noot tribe ; and * puulwuum '
by the Peek whuurong tribe ; and were the sites of large, permanent habitations,
which formed homes for many generations. The great size of some of them, and
the vast accumulation of burnt earth, charcoal, and ashes which is found in and
around them, is accounted for by the long continuance of the domestic hearth, the
decomposition of the building materials, and the debris arising from their frequent
destruction by bush fires. They never were ovens, or original places of interment,
as is generally supposed, and were only used for purposes of burial after
certain events occurred while they were occupied as sites for residences — such as
the death of moi*e than one of the occupants of the dwelling at the same time, or
the family becoming extinct; in which instance they were called *muuru
kowuutuung' by the Chaa wuurong tribe, and * muuruup kaakee ' by the Kuum
kopan noot tribe, meaning ' ghostly place,' and were never afterwards used as
sites for residences, and only as places for burial. There is an idea that when
two persons die at the same time on any particular spot, their deaths, if not
attributed to the spell of an enemy, are caused by something unhealthy about
the locality, and it is abandoned for ever. It is never even visited again, except
to bury the dead ; and the moimds are used for that purpose only because the
soil is loose, and a grave is more easily dug in them than in the solid ground.
The popular notion of their having been ovens is refuted, not only by the
unanimous testimony of all the old aborigines, but also by a careful examination
of the structure and stratification of the mounds. On opening a very perfect
circular mound, sixty-five feet in diameter and five feet high, and intersecting it
by parallel trenches dug at intervals of three feet, down to the original surface
soil, and through that and a bed of gravel to the clay, not the slightest sign was
observed of the ancient alluvial soil having been disturbed. Had an oven ever
existed there, it would have been distinctly visible in the floor of the wuum, as
native ovens are always formed by digging deep holes in the ground. In cutting

104

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

through these mounds, a complete history of their growth was exhibited. Layers
of yellow ashes, mixed with small pieces of charred wood, alternated with the
earthy debris of the old dwellings ; and the numerous saucer-shaped, ashy hollows
in the strata of the mounds showed where the fires had been. No stones larger
than a walnut were found ; which is another proof that the fireplaces were never
used as ovens. Several mounds, not more than a foot high, on being intersected
in every direction, showed the remains of only one fireplace, and that always on
the eastern side of the mound. In every large mound, and in some of the smaller
ones, human skeletons were found about eighteen inches below the surface, lying
on the side, with the head to the west, and the knees drawn up to the chest — a
mode of sepulture not uncommon among the aboriginal inhabitants of England.

ANECDOTES.

105

CHAPTER XXIII.

ANECDOTKS.

The first white man who made his appearance at Port Fairy (a locality named
after a small vessel called the Fairy) was considered by the aborigines to be a
supernatural being ; and, as he was discovered in the act of smoking a pipe, they
said that he must be made of fire, for they saw smoke coming out of his mouth.
Though they were very ready to attack a stranger, they took good care not to go
near this man of fire, who very probably owed the preservation of his life to his
tobacco-pipe. Shortly afterwards a tipsy man was seen. He was considered
mad, and everyone ran away from him.

The first ship which was descried by the aborigines was believed to be a
huge bird, or a tree growing in the sea. It created such terror that a messenger
was immediately sent to inform the chief of the tribe, who at once declared the
man to be insane, and ordered him to be bled by the doctor.

When the natives first saw a bullock, they were encamped at the waterhole
Wuurong Ysering in Spring Ci-eek, near the spot where the village of Woolsthorpe
now stands, and were engaged in fishing. The animal, which was evidently a
stray working bullock from some exploring party, and which had a sheet of tin
tied across his face to prevent him from wandering, came down to the waterhole
to drink. The natives, who had never in their lives heard of such a large beast,
instantly took to their heels. In the night time the bullock came to the
encampment and walked about it bellowing, which so terrified the people in the
camp that they covered themselves up with their rugs and lay trembling till
sunrise. In the morning they saw what they believed to be a Muuruup, with
two tomahawks in his head ; but no one dared to move. Immediately after the
departure of this extraordinary and unwelcome visitor, a council of war was held;
and the brave men, accompanied by their wives and childi*en — who could not,
under such alarming circumstances, be left behind — started in pursuit. The
animal was easily tracked, as such footprints had never been seen before. They
were followed four or five miles in a north-easterly direction. The bullock was
at length discovered grazing in an open part of the forest. The bravest of the

106

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

warriors went to the front, and, with the whole tribe at their back, approached
the animal. They asked if he was a whitefellow, and requested him to give
them the tomahawks ho carried on his head ; whereupon the astonished bullock
pawed the ground, bellowed, shook his head, and charged. This so terrified the
'braves' that they fled headlong, and in their precipitate retreat upset men,
women, and children, and broke their spears. The natives afterwards told this
story with great glee. It used to be narrated in a very humoroas way by
Gnaweeth, who was mentioned in a previous chapter, and afforded the women
many a laugh at the expense of the men. It was also told more recently by
Weeratt Kuujoiut, when he was considerably over seventy years of age ; and he
described it as having occurred when he was a newly married man, which makes
the date of the incident to have been about 1821 or '22.

THE FIRST FORMATION OF WATERHOLES.

One very dry season, when there was no water in all the country, and the
animals were perishing of thirst, a magpie lark and a gigantic crane consulted
together. They could not understand how it was that a turkey bustard of their
acquaintance was never thirsty; and, knowing that he would not tell them
where his supply of water was obtained from, they resolved to watch and find
out where he drank. They flew high into the air, and saw him go to a flat
stone. Before lifting the stone, the turkey, afraid of his treasure being
discovered, looked up and saw the two birds, but they were so high, and kept so
steady, that he took them for small clouds. He lifted the stone, therefore, and
drank from a spring running out of a cleft in a rock. When he replaced the
stone and flew away, the two spies came down and removed.it, and took a drink
and a bath, remarking, * King gnakko gnal* — *We have done him.* They
flapped their wings with joy, and the water rose till it formed a lake. They
then flew all over the parched country, flapping their wings and forming water-
holes, which have been drinking-places ever since.

THE TORTOISE AND THE SNAKE.

Long ago the tortoise was a venomous beast, and bit people while they were
drinking at waterholes and streams. To avoid being bitten, they adopted the
plan of scooping up the water with their hands and throwing it into their

ANECDOTES.

107

moutha This precaution so disappointed the tortoise, that he asked the snake
to allow him to transfer his deadly venom to it ; and argued that, since the
natives had adopted another mode of drinking, he had no opportunity of
destroying them, but that the snake had many opportunities of biting them in
their wuums and among the long grass. The snake agreed to the proposal, and
ever afterwards the tortoise has been harmless. This method of drinking,
however, which was adopted to avoid the bite of the tortoise, still continues.

THE BLUE HERON.

Once upon a time, while a large meeting was being held at a place near
Dunkeld, and the natives were encamped imder a wide-spreading red gum-tree,
and were enjoying a feast of small fish, one of their number was so displeased
because he did not get the whole of the fish to himself, which had been distributed
to his tribe, that he took the form of a heron, and, lighting on the tree, knocked
it down and killed nearly the whole of the tribe. Those who escaped ran off and
told the other tribes who were encamped in the neighbourhood what had
happened. When they came to the spot, they found that the heron had eaten all
the fish. In revenge they laid upon him the curse that his spirit would fly about
for ever in the form of a blue heron, and then they killed him.

THE NATIVE COMPANION AND THE EMU.

A native companion and an emu, each with a brood of young ones, went to
a swamp to get sedge roots, which are very good to eat. They kindled a fire on
the bank in which to cook the roots, and then waded into the water to get a
supply. The native companion pulled up a number of roots, and returned to the
fire, provided with a long pole, with which she pushed the roots into the fire,
and had them all covered up, and the pole hidden, before the emu returned with
her. supply. The emu had only a very short stick, which was soon burnt in
trying to push her roots into the fire. She used first one foot and then the other.
Both got scorched. She tried her wings next, then her bill, and had them
scorched likewise. She ran to the swamp to cool her bums. On her return she
found the native companion and her yoimg ones digging the roots out of the fire
with the long pole, and eating them. The emu was very ill pleased at the trick.

108

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

but resolved to be revenged at a future opportunity. Some time afterwards they
went again to the swamp for roots, kindled a fire on the bank, and left the
young emus only at it to watch the fire. The young native companions
accompanied their mother. The emu came home first, fed her young ones with
roasted roots, and hid all her brood except two. The native companion returned
with her young ones, and, on inquiring what was being roasted in the fire, was
told by the emu that, as she could not find any roots, and was very hungry, she
was cooking all her young ones except the two which were running about.
Thereupon the native companion killed all her young ones except two, and put
them into the fire to roast. After they were eaten, the emu called her brood
from their hiding-place, and, addressing the native companion, said, * Now I have
served you out for deceiving me on a former occasion, and ever after this you
will have no more than two young ones at a time, instead of a do2sen as I have,
and as you had befoi*e playing this trick on me.'

THE BUN YIP.

The following story was told by the old chief, Morpor, to his daughter and her
husband : — Long ago two brothers — one of them so tall that he looked down on
everybody, and the other of ordinary size — went to a swamp near Mount
William to get swans' eggs. They found a great many ; and, while roasting
some of them on the bank of the lagoon, the smaller of the brothers said that he
must get some more from the swamp. The taller one forbade him to go alone.
However, he did go. He found a nest in the middle of the lagoon, and took the
eggs. When returning to the shore, he heard a rush of water behind him, and
saw the water-fowls in front of him hurrying along the water as if frightened.
At the same time, the bottom of the marsh became so soft that he stuck in the
mud, and could not go forward. A great wave overtook him and carried him
back to the nest, where a large bunyip caught him in its mouth. It held him so
high that his brother saw him. Some hours afterwards the water became calm.
The tall brother then took a sheet of bark and put a fire on it, and, approaching
the nest, saw his brother in the mouth of the bunyip. Speaking to the bunyip,
he said — *Be quiet, and let me take my brother.' The bunyip gqashed its
teeth and gave him up ; but he was dead, and his entrails had been devoured.
The brother took the body ashore and laid it near the fire, and wept He then
went for his friends, who came and carried the corpse to their home^ After he

ANECDOTES. 109

had watched it for two days, the relatives put it in a tree for one moon, and then
burned it, with the exception of the leg and arm bones, which were given to the
frienda of the deceased.

THE OHOST.

A man, travelling in the country of a friendly tribe, came upon a deserted
habitation. Above the doorway he saw the usual crooked stick, pointing in the
direction which the family had taken ; and, all round about the place, pieces of
bark covered with white clay, indicating a death. He found tracks leading to a
tree, in which he soon discovered a dead body. Anxious to know who had died,
he laid down his rug and weapons at the foot of the tree, and ascended it. On
removing the opossum rug from the face, he found that it was a friend. He wept
for a long time, then came down and went away ; but he had not gone far before
he heard some magpies making a great noise, as though they saw something
strange. He turned round to see what it was, and, to his horror and amazement,
saw the ghost of the deceased come down and follow him. He became so
terrified that he could not move ; and, addressing it, said — ^* Why do you frighten
me, when I have come to see you, and never did you any harm V It never spoke,
but followed him for a considerable distance, scratching his back meanwhile with
its nails, and then returned to the tree. When he reached his friends he told
them what had happened, and showed them his back, lacerated and bleeding ; and
said that he had a presentiment that something bad would befall him before
long. At the next meeting of the tribes he was speared through the heart.

THE METEOR

A friend communicates the following anecdote as illustrative of the clever-
ness of the aborigines. ' On one occasion, having tried in vain to get an old
man — ^known about Camperdown as Doctor George — ^to understand something
of the Christian religion, I turned the conversation to the subject of a large
meteor which had appeared a few months previously, and asked him if he had
seen it After a little he caught my meaning, and said — " Yes ! me see him, like
it fire ; him go 'ff 'ff," pointing with his finger its path along the sky. I asked
him what he thought it was. He answered, carelessly, " Borak me know." Then
suddenly brightening up, and putting on a slyly grave countenance, he said :

110

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

" Me think, great big one master " — pointing to the sky — " want smoke him pipe.
Him strike him match/' suiting the action to the words, "and puff, puff,"
pretending to smoke. Then he made a movement as though he slowly dropped
a match through the air. The comical assumption of gravity with which this was
said, and the quickness with which the impromptu explanation was invented,
showed that if he did not imderstand my religious teaching, it was certainly not
from lack of intelligence.'

BUCKLETS WIDOW.

The following account has been kindly conmiunicated by Mr. Goodall, the
Superintendent of the Aboriginal Station at Framlingham, who has in several
other ways assisted the writer in obtaining information from the aborigines
under his charge : —

There is, at the Aboriginal Station at Framlingham, a native woman named
Furranmumin Tallarwumin, who was the wife of the white man Buckley at the
time he was found by the first settlers in Victoria. She belonged oiiginally to the
Buninyong tribe, and was about fifteen years old when she became acquainted with
Buckley. She says that one of the natives discovered immense footprints in the
sand hummocks near the Biver Barwon, and concluded that they had been made
by some unknown gigantic native — a stranger, and therefore an enemy. He set
off at once on the track and soon discovered a strange-looking being lying down
on a small hillock, sunning himself after a bath in the sea. A brief survey,
cautiously made, was sufficient. The native hurried back to the camp and told
the rest of the tribe what he had seen. They at once collected all the men in the
neighbourhood, formed a cordon, and warily closed in oh him. When they came
near he took little or no notice of them, and did not even alter his position for
some time. They were very much alarmed. At length one of the party finding
courage addressed him as muumong guurk (meaning that they supposed him to be
one who had been killed and come to life again), and asked his name, ** You
Kondak Baarwon?" Buckley replied by a prolonged grunt and an inclination
of the head, signifylhg yes. They asked him a number of other questions, all of
which were suggested by the idea that he was one of themselves returned from
the dead, and to all the questions Buckley gave the same reply. They were
highly gratified, and he and they soon became friends. They made a wuum of
leafy branches for him, and lit a fire in front of it, around which they all

ANECDOTES. Ill

assembled. He was then recognized as one of the tribe. The news spread
rapidly, and he was visited by large numbers of natives from different parts of the
colony, who always showed great fear of him at first The children especially
would hide themselves from him, or call to their mothers to keep them from the
Muuruup.

When ships visited the coast to get wood and water, Buckley never sought
to make himself known to any of them. On several occasions ships were
wrecked on the coast and all hands perished. From the wrecks Buckley and his
tribe secured a large quantity of blankets, axes, and other articles, which he
taught them how to use.

When Batman arrived at Geelong, Buckley was fishing in the river Barwon —
in which pursuit he excelled — and the news was conveyed to him by a number of
natives, who brought him several articles which they had received as presents
from Batman and his friends, such as biscuits, sugar, bread, &c., which he at once
recognized and partook of. He was asked by the tribe to take his fish (of which
he had a large quantity) and all his war jetccoutrements, and go down to the " big
ships." When he arrived he was met by Batman and " all the other big fellows,"
who were well pleased to see a white man among the natives. Buckley could not
at first understand what they said, having completely forgotten his own language.
He looked so puzzled while he was endeavouring to recall his mother tongue.
Several days passed before he could converse with any freedom. Batman and
his companions were not long in getting Buckley thoroughly washed and shaved,
and in cutting his hair, which had grown to a prodigious length. When he was
taken away in the ship the natives were much distressed at losing him, and
when, some time after, they received a letter informing them of his marriage in
Hobart Town, they lost all hope of his return to them, and grieved accordingly.

Buckley arrived at Port Phillip in 1802 as a convict, and in 1803 made his
escape into the bush. After wandering about for one year he joined the
aborigines, and lived with them till 1835. For thirty-two years he had not
conversed with a white man. He had no children, and died in Tasmania
in 1856.

CONVEYANCE BY PRINCIPAL CHIEFS TO BATMAN OF 100,000
ACRES BETWEEN GEELONG AND QUEENSCLIFF.

The lithograph opposite to this page is a fac-aimile of a parchment conveyance
of certain land near Oeelong to John Batman from eight chiefs, who affixed their
marks, or signatures, to the deed, and at the same time symbolized the transfer
of the land by taking up some of the soil and handing it to Batman. The
original document is in the custody of Messrs. Taylor, Buckland and Gates, who
have kindly given their permission to its publication. The heading is not in the
original document.

Another conveyance of 500,000 acres between Geelong and the Tarra was
made to Batman. A copy of this conveyance is to be found in the Record Office,
in the Van Diemen's Land Correspondence, and has been published by Dr. Lang,
by Mr. Bonwick, by Mr. Arden, and by Mr. Labelliere, in their several accounts
of the early settlement of Victoria.

Both of the transactions represented by these documents were disallowed by
the Colonial Secretary, in London.

The marks made by the chiefs on the parchment were their genuine and
usual signatures, which they were in the habit of carving on the bark of trees
and on their message sticks. The re^er will be interested in these traces of
civilization among a people who have hitherto been considered the least civilized
of all nations.

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Ixxvii

NAMES OF PLACES.

It is deeply to be regretted that the opportunity for securing the native names
of places has, in many districts, gone for ever. In most localities the aborigines
are either dead or too young to have learned the names which their fathers
gave to the various features of the country ; and in those parts where a few old
men are still to be met with, the white inhabitants, generally speaking, take no
interest in the matter. With a very few worthy exceptions, they have done
nothing to ascertain and record even those names which appertain to their own
properties. How much more interesting would have been the map of the colony
of Victoria had this been attended to at an earlier period of its history.

The following are the native names of some conspicuous places in the
Western District, and, as far as could be ascertained, their meanings. It must be
noticed that rivers have not the same name from their source to the sea.
The majority of Australian streams cease to flow in summer, and are then
reduced to a chain of pools or waterholes, all of which, with their intermediate
fords, have distinguishing names. The river which connects these waterholes in
winter has no name. Every river, however, which forms one continuous stream
during both summer and winter has a name which is applied to its whole
length. For example, Taylor's River, or Mount Emu Creek, is called " Tampirr,"
" flowing water,'* from its source in Lake Burrumbeet to its junction with the
Hopkins. At the same time, every local reach in these rivers has a distinguishing
name.

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Full text of "Australian aborigines : the languages and customs of several tribes of aborigines in the western district of Victoria, Australia"

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